初中英语语法归纳
语法学习
（一） 动词语态
动词的语态主要分为两种：主动语态与被动语态
主动语态指主语是谓语功作的执行者，被动语态指主语是谓语动作的承受者，。I have done the job.（主动句） The job has been done.（被动句）
1． 被动语态根据时态的不同，可分为以下几种类型： 一般现在时：am/is/are+done;
2． 一般过去时：was/were+done
3． 现在进行时：am/is/are+being done
4． 过去进行时：was/were+being done
5． 将来时 ：will/would+be done,be going to be done, be to be done
6． 现在完成时：have/has +been done
7． 过去完成时：had+been done
8． 将来完成时：will+have been done
2被动语态门主功语态一样具有不同时态，其时态的变化取决于时间状语，其时态的变化形式由其助动词be的事态变化形式来体现
The house is being painted now.（现在进行时被动语态）
Eru0ugh has been said to him about it.（现在完成时被动语态）
The furniture was bought last week..（过去时被动语态）
You'll be punished one day.（将来时被动语态）
3．被动语态的意义
（1）不知道或没必要指出行为、动作的执行者（无须加buy短语） Colour TV sets are sold in that shop. Football is plated all over the world.
(2)突出和强调行为或动作的承受着。 History is made by the people. The wounded soldiers have been saved by those people.
(3)有时主语较长，可后置。 It's said that we have won the game.
4．在使役动词make及感官动词see ，hear….等动词的被动语态形式后面出现的作主语补足语的不定式须加不定式符号“to\"
The teacher made Tom answer it again.（主动语态，不加“to\" )
Tom was made to answer it again.（被动语态，加“to\" )
5.短语动词的被动语态要注意不可丢失其附加的介词、副词或短语。
look at，laugh at，send for，call on，carry out， listen to，take care of ,make use of,depend on，pay attention to，hand in，put on，look up，give up〕等.
6. be＋过去分词可以是被动语态形式，也可以是系表结构形式。区别是，系表结构表示主语状态或特征，不带by短语；而被动语态是表示主语的一个被动动作，可以带by短语。 The job was well done.（系表结构）
The job was well done by a skilled worker.（被动语态）
The composition is well written.（系表结构）
The composition is written with great care;.（被动语态）
7．原来主动语态中的宾语如果是从句，变为被动语态时，要用形式主语it.
It has been known to him that many friends will come to see him.
It is said that this book has been translated into several languages.
8．有一些动词不能用被动语态。 break out，take place，happen，belong to，
cost，suit，fit，have，let, wear, weigh. suffer, pass, kill the time, enter, last, meet（遇见），join（参加），fail等
9．宾语为反身代词时，不用被动语态，只用主动语态形式。
The man introduced himself as Mr. Wang.
10．有些动词或情态动词常用所接的不定式来表示被动意义。 如：happen，pretend，seem，used to，ought to，appear等。
The house used to be painted white.
The job has to be done before dark.
On the way we happened to be caught in the rain.
11．有些动名词在want, need, require和介词worth后形式为主动，意义为被动。
12．有些动词用主动形式来表示被动意义。如：clean, sell,look，lock，open，write，read，wash,feel等。
This kind of cloth washes easily.
These books sell well.（好卖）
The door doesn't lock.
The door can't open.
This pen writes very well.
13．除助动词be可以构成被动语态外，get, become等词也可以＋过去分词构成被动意义。 She was unhappy because she didn't get invited to the party.
（1）主谓一致。 主谓一致指的是句子的谓语动词与其主语在数上必须保持一致，句子的主语是第三人称单数，其谓语动词须用单数，主语是复数，则谓语动词用复数。
1．主谓一致的三个原则。 英语中的主谓一致主要遵循三个原则：意义一致原则、语法一致原则和就近原则。这三个原则常常发生矛盾，但当发生冲突时，意义一致原则为优先考虑的原则。
(1)语法一致原则： 主语和谓语通常是在语法形式上取得一致，即主语是单数形式，谓语动词也应采取单数形式；主语是复数形式，谓语动词也应采取复数形式。
She is a girl．她是女孩。
They are all girls．她们都是女孩。
The professor and writer is invited to many universities to deliver lectures. 这位教授兼作家被邀请到很多大学作报告。 （教授与作家是同一个人，是单数.）
The old are very well taken care of in our city．老年人在我们城市被照顾得很好。( the old指所有的老年人，指一类人，为复数概念。）
(2)就近原则： 谓语动词的人称和数由靠近它的主语决定。
There is a book，two pens and three pencils on the desk. 书桌上有一本书，两支钢笔和三支铅笔。
There are two pens，a book and three pencils on the desk. 书桌上有两支钢笔，一本书和三支铅笔。
Either my sisters or my mother is coming. 不是我的姐妹们就是我的妈妈要来。
(3)意义一致原则： 主语形式上是单数，但表达复数意义，那么谓语动词要用复数形式；或主语形式上是复数，但表达单数意义，则谓语动词也采用单数形式。
The police are still running after the murderer. 警察还在追杀人犯。
The news was very exciting. 这则新闻令人激动。
My family were watching TV at 7 o'clock. 7点钟的时候，我们全家人在看电视。
My family has moved three times．我们家搬过三次。
2．主谓一致的应用。 (1)单一主语的情况。 单一主语指的是由一个中心名词或名词短语构成的主语，其主语与谓语的一致情况如下： ①不定代词作主语
a．不定代词either, neither, each, one, the other, another,someone，somebody，something，anyone，anybody，anything，everyone, everybody, everything, nobody,
no one, nothing等作主语时，谓语动词常用单数、
b. none作主语时如果指人或可数的物，表数目，谓语动词单复数形式皆可；如果指不可数名词，表量，谓语动词用单数。
Jimmy has used up all the money. None is left. 吉米把所有的钱都用光了，一点没留。
c. neither/either of＋复数名词或复数形式的代词，谓语动词可用单数，也可用复数。 Neither of these words is correct. 这些单词没有一个是正确的。
d. the other two（…），the other three（…）another two( ... ) , both等作主语时谓语动词用复数、 Five people came to help，but another three were still needed. 已经有五个人来帮忙了，但我们还需要三个
e. all指人时作主语，谓语动词用复数；指全部事情时，谓语动词常用单数‘ All the work was finished. 所有的活都干完了 All is going well一切都很正常.
f．在each… . and each，every….and every，no….and no,many a. . . and many a等由and连接并列单数主语的结构中，谓语动词用单数、 Each boy and each girl has got a seat. 每个男孩和女孩都有一个座位. Every man and everv woman is at work. 每个男人和女人都在工作. No sound and no voice is heard for a long while. 很长时间没有听到一点声音 Every boy and every girl likes the film star. 所有的男孩和女孩都喜欢这个电影明星
g. such山作主语时，谓语动词的单复数形式应根据其意义而定、 Such is Stephen Hawking，who has suffered a great deal but achieved so much． 这就是史蒂芬?霍金，遭受着巨大痛苦而作出巨大成就的人。
Such as have plenty of money want more money. 那些有足够钱的人还想要更多的钱。 ②集合名词作主语
a．有些集体名词，如people, cattle, police等形式上是单数，但意义上是复数，谓语动词需用复数。 People are talking about the accident happened yesterday. 人们还在谈论昨天发生的那场事故。
b．集合名词，如audience（观众），army, class, crew船员），company（公司），crowd（人群），enemy, family, group, government(政府)，public (公众)，population(人口),team(队员)等作主语时，若作为一个整体看待，谓语用单数；若着眼于组成该集体的一个个成员或个体时，谓语就该用复数。 The population in China is very large and 80% of the population live in rural areas. 中国人口很多，其中80％的人住在农村。
c. 有些以-sh, -ese , -ch结尾的表示国家、民族的形容词与the连用时表示复数含义，谓语动词用复数如the English, the Chinese，the French等 The English are a polite people．英国是一个礼仪之邦。
③以复数形式结尾的特殊名词作主语
a．以一ics结尾的表示学科名称的名词作主语时，谓语用单数. Politics is taught in our school. 我们学校开设政治课。
b．专有名词如国名、人名、书名、组织机构等作主语，形式上即使是复数，谓语动词也要用单数，如the United Nations, the United States，the New York Times等。 Lu Xun's works sells well. 鲁迅的著作很畅销。
c．有些名词如。arnings, thanks, goods, leavings（残渣，剩余），clothes, trousers, belongings（财产），savings, scissor，等作主语，其谓语动词只能用复数形式 The family were saved but the belongings were lost. 这一家人获救，但损失了所有财产。
d. means , sheep , (leer, crossroad、等单复数同形的名词作主语，谓语动词根据其单复数而定 Each means has been tried to solve the problem，but none is effective. 每一种方法都试过，但没有一个是有效的。
④含有修饰语的名词作主语
a一些由两个对应部分组成一体的复数名词，如trousers , pants, glasses, scissgrs等作主语，前面若无a pair of, a suit of, a set of, a series of等这类单位词，通常作复数用，谓语动词作复数。若带有单位词，则由单位词的单复数决定谓语动词的单复数形式。
My shoes are under the bed．我的鞋在床下。
His black trousers are too long．他的那条黑裤子太长了。
Your glasses are on your nose．你的眼镜在鼻子上。 但若这类名词与a pair连用时，谓语动词往往用单数。
This pair of shoes is made in Beijing．这双鞋子是北京制造的。
There is a pair of glasses on your bed．你的床上有副眼镜。
b. a number of'意为“许多”，修饰可数名词复数时谓语一般也用复数：the number of意为“……的数目”，作主语时，谓语?只能用单数 A number of the other plants were found in America. 在美洲还发现了许多别的植物。
The number of people who travel by plane in China is larger than ever before． 在中国乘飞机旅行的人数比以往多了。
c．只修饰可数名词的量词several, a few, few, quite a few, a great manv(of...）作主语，谓语动词应用复数形式；其修饰的名词作主语、谓语动词也应用复数形式
Usually few regard their work as a pleasure. 通常很少有人把工作当成娱乐。
d. some, plenty of', a lot ( of) , lots( of）等词既可修饰可数名词，又可修饰不可数名词，谓语的形式应根据所修饰词而定、
A lot of students are coming to the meeting. 很多学生要来参加这次会议。
A lot of work is to be done to prepare for the conference.
为了准备会议，还有很多工作要做。
〔注意」a quantity( of) , ( large )quantities( of）作主语或其修饰的名词作主语，谓语动词应根据quantity的单复数形式而定。
Quantities of money are needed to equip the school. 学校安装设备需要很多钱。 A quantity of story books has been bought for the children. 为孩子们买了大量的故事书：
e. a great/ good deal( of)，a little，quite a little，a large amount( of）等修饰不可数名词的量词作主语或修饰的名词作主语，谓语动词只能用单数形式 A great deal of time was wasted playing but ought to have been fully used． 很多时间在玩耍中浪费掉了，但本应好好利用的
f. \"more than one十单数名词”尽管意义上是复数，但因中心词是单数形式，谓语也必须用单数以符合语法一致的原则在“more＋复数名词＋than one”结构之后，谓语常用复数．
More than one person was injured in the accident. 不止一人在这次事故中受伤－
More members than one are against the proposal. 反对这项提议的会员不止一个
g. \"one or two +复数名词”作主语时，谓语动词用复数
One or two students were planting trees yesterday afternoon. 昨天下午有一两个学生在植树 h．表示时间、距离、价格、度量衡的复数名词与pass, go by，waste, use, spend等词连用时，谓语动词用复数
Five years have passed since I joined the Party．我入党五年了
i. one or two 后接复数名词，谓语要用复数但在“a/an十单数名词＋or two”结构之后，谓语却常用单数 One or two days are enough for this work.=A day or two is enough for this work. 干这活一两天就够了
j. the rest（of…），the remaining，part（of...），one half'( of…）等词或短语作主语和它们所修饰的名词或代词作主语，谓语动词应根据主语所表达的单复数而定 Part of his story was not true．他讲的故事有一部分不是真的。
Part of the foreign teachers in our school are from Canada.我们学校一部分外籍教师来自加拿大. k．当“几分之几（百分之几）+ of＋名词”结构作主语时，一般也应根据of后的名词的单复数决定谓语动词的单复数\"one and a half +复数可数名词”作主语，谓语一般用单数. This is because two thirds of the earth's surface is made up of vast oceans．
这是因为地球表面积的2/3是由广阔的海洋构成的 Two thirds of these tasks have been completed. 这些任务已经完成了三分之。 One and a half days is all I can spare. 我只能抽出一天半的时间 It is reported that in this area one in four people suffers from lung cancer. 据报道在此地区有四分之一的人患肺癌（一般情况下，one in ten作主语和其修饰的名词作主语，谓语动词用单数形式）
(2）非谓语形式、从句作主语
①单独的不定式、动词的一ing形式作主语时，谓语动词一般用单数形式：如果多个
非谓语动词连在一起表达同一概念，谓语动词用单数形式；如果表达不同概念，谓语动词用复数 Persuading him to join us seems really hard. 劝他加入我们似乎很难。 To go to bed early and to rise early is a good habit. 早睡早起是好习惯。 To work and to live are two different things but they are always together. 虽然工作和生活是两件不同的事情，但是它们永远相伴 。
②that，what，who，which，when，where，why，whatever, whoever,whichever, whenever, whereve：等引导的从句作主语或单独引导疑问句时，应根据概念上一致的原则决定谓语动词的数 \"That .lack has gone abroad makes us all surprised. 杰克出国去了使我们都很惊讶 Who is Abraham Lincoln？林肯是谁？ Who are talking with each other？谁在相互讨论？ (3)以并列结构作主语的主谓一致
① and及both... and...
a. 一般来说，两个单数主语用and连接起来，表示两个不同的人或物，谓语动词用复数；但如果两个并列的单数主语在意义上指同一个人、同一个事物或同一个概念，谓语动词必须用单数 A smile and handshake show welcome．微笑和握手表示欢迎 The poet and writer has produced many works.这个诗人兼作家写出很多作品、
b．并列主语由or, either.. . or. . . , neither... nor. . . , not only…but also…连接时，谓语动词常与邻近的主语保持人称、数的一致 Either the teacher or the students are to blame. 或者是老师，或者是学生要受到责备 Not only the students but also their teacher doesn't know about it． 不仅仅是学生，还有他们的老师都对此一无所知＿ Neither you nor I am fit for the work. 你和我都不适合干这个工作－ Are neither you nor I fit for the work? 你和我都不适合干这个工作吗？
(4)假性主语的主谓一致 with,together with（连同），along with（和一起），as wellas（也），like（诸如），such as（诸如），as much as, no less than（和一样），rather than（而不是），including, besides, but,except, in addition以除……之外）等短语后的主语称为假性主语，谓语动词仍然根据原主语而定，不跟假性主语一致。
The boy with his dog is here. 这个男孩在这儿，还有他的狗
No one but your parents was there then. 那时，除了你的父母没有别人在那里
Tom，together with Mary and Alice，is going to swim this afternoon. 汤姆今天下午要和玛丽及艾丽丝去游泳
The teacher，including his students，is going to see Professor Smith. 那位老师和他的学生们将去看望史密斯教授、
(5)由there , here引导的主语不止一个时，谓语通常和最邻近的主语保持一致、 There is a lake and some hills around it. 它被一个湖和几座刁、山环绕着、
(6)定语从句中的谓语动词应视先行词的单复数而定，先行词是单数，定语从句中的谓语动词也用单数，先行词是复数，定语从句中的谓语动词也用复数 Those（people）who are for this plan are to sign your nameright on this paper． 同意这个计划的在这张纸上签名 I will always treasure the moments that were full of pleasures. 我将永远珍惜充满欢乐的时光： The news that has been published in today's newspaper isn't true. 今天报纸上发布的新闻不是真的。
(7）在倒装句中谓语应与后面的主语保持一致。 On the wall hang some pictures by Picasso. 墙上挂着一些毕加索的画。
(8)运算数词作主语时，谓语动词用单数。 Three times five is fifteen. 3乘5等于15 Five minus four is one. 5减4等于1。 Seven times four makes twenty-eight. 7乘4等于?g
(9）表示数量的“one and a half＋复数名词”作主语时，谓语动词要用单数。 One and a half bananas is left on the table. 桌子上还剩有一个半香蕉。 One and a half hours is enough一个半小时足够了。
六、知识*能力聚焦 1. off prep.＆adv．离开，分开
（1）prep. The hall rolled off the table．球从桌上滚落 Keep off the grass．勿践踏草地 He entered a big house off the high street. 他进入了一所离大街不远的大房子。 The ship sank off Cape Horn. 这艘轮船在合恩角外沉没了
（2）adv. The town is still five miles off%amaN． 那小镇尚在五英里之外－ We are still some way off. 我们仍有一段距离（如距目的地）要走 Please tell them that the meeting is olf 请告诉他们会议已经取消了。 〔常用短语〕 take sth. off sth. 扣除，减去 fall off 跌落 knock sth. off sth．把某物从另一物上．放掉 wipe sth. off sth． 把某物从另一物上擦掉 along the coast 沿着海岸 off the coast 海岸外／在海上 on the coast海岸上／在海岸 The British Isles are a group of islands that lies off the west coast of Europe. 不列颠群岛是一组位于欧洲西海岸不远处的岛屿 Wuhan lies on the Chanjiang River. 武汉位于长江边 2. face n.脸vt．转向，面向
（1）n． Judging from his worried face，we knew that he must have had some trouble. 从他焦急的脸色判断，我们知道他肯定有麻烦了.
（2）vt. -How does the house face？这房屋面朝哪边？ -It faces ( to the ) east．朝东。 I was faced with new problem．我面临着新的M题 〔 常用短语〕 in( the) face of不顾（问题、困难等） lose one's face失面子，丢脸 fight in the face of公然反抗 face the music 由于自己的决定或行为而接受批评或承担后果 3. range n. &vt.
（1）n．山脉，视觉（听觉）范围（区域），射程 There is a magnificent range of mountains in the borderland. 在边境地带有连绵不断的雄伟山脉。 The tree is within range of' vision．这棵树在视野之内
( 2 ) vt.（在一定范围内）变化，排列 The prices of the dolls range from＄5 to＄100. 这些布娃娃的价格从5美元到100美元不等 The discussion ranged over various problems. 这次讨论涉及了种种问题 4. design n.. &v.
( 1 )n. 图样，设计，图案；目的，意向 This is a design for the garden. 这是那座花园的设计图 We don't know if it was done by accident or by design. 我们不知道那是偶然的，还是故意的。 His evil designs were frustrated. 他的罪恶意图未能得逞
(2) v．设计，控制 She is designing dresses for the singer. 她在为这位歌手设计服装 He designed a plot for tits new novel. 他为他的新小说拟定情节 This weekend party iNas designed to bring the two musicians together. 这次周末聚会的用意是使两位音乐家见面 〔常用短语〕 by design故意地，蓄意地； have designs
on/against对…… 抱不良企图，图谋加害于； design stfi. for sb. /sth．设计，制图，构思 5. influence n.＆v.
( 1 )n. 影响，支配，作用 the influence of the moon on the tides 月球对潮汐的作用 These so-called friends of hers have a bad influence on her. 她那些所谓的朋友对她影响很坏 He has a strange influence over the girl. 他对这个女孩子有一种奇妙的影响 Her influence made me a better person. 受她的影响，我变好了
(2) v. 影响，感化 The rice crops will be influenced by the weather. 稻谷的收成将受到气候的影响 It is clear that her paintings have been influenced by Picasso. 她的画显然受到毕加索的影响 What influenced you to behave like that? 是什么支配你那样做的？
6. refer vi. ( referred, referred, referring）涉及，提到( to)；查资料；参与；针对；提交，交付 He referred to pollution in his report last week. 上周在报告中他提到了污染问题、 The shop referred the complaint to the manufacturers. 商店把投诉转交给制造商 refer to 意思是“提到，谈到，涉及，衣考，查阅” refer to sb. /sth. as 意为“称某人/某物为……”，to是介词，不可省略 be referred to( as） 是refer to的被动式，意思是“把......称作” When f was saying that I wasn't referring to you. 我那样说的时候，指的并不是你、 The huge clock in London is referred to as“Big Ben”. 伦敦的大钟被称为“大本钟” They referred to their friendly teacher as“Mother\"． 他们把和善的老师称为“妈妈”
7. compare vt. &vi．比较，对照；比作 He cannot compare with Shakespeare as a writer of tragedies. 作为一个悲剧作家，他无法和莎士比亚相比 compare... with
意为“把......与……进行比较／相比” compare... to... 意为“把……比作......”，含“比喻”之意 compare with sb. /sth．意为‘和某人或某事物相比或值得相比” It's necessary to compare English with Chinese in English study．学英语时有必要把英语和汉语进行比较 Compare this with that，and you'll which is better. 把这个同那个比较，你就知道哪个更好了 He began comparing himself pith the students. 他开始把自己和学生比较起来 Young people are often compared to the rising still. 年轻人常被比作初升的大阳 The writer of the poem compares his loser to a rose. 诗的作者把他的爱人比作玫瑰。 [注意] compare 的过去分词作状语时，compared to 和 compare with在应用上无区别，常被用于句首或句末。 This hardship is nothing，compared to/with those the Red Army faced on the Long March. 和红军长征比起来，这点苦算不上什么 Compared to/with many girls，she was indeed very lucky． 与许多女孩相比，她的确算很幸运了
8. percent n．百分之…… percent表示“百分之…”，相当于％，其前往往是一个具体的数字 percentage表示“百分比，百分率”，其前不能是一个具体的数字，只能被high , low等形容词修饰。 -What percentage of babies died of' this disease last year? 去年婴儿死于这种疾病的百分比是多少？ -One percent．百分之一
9. would like to do原音做草事 would like sb. to do宁愿要某人做某事 would like to have done本打算做但没做 I'd like to pay you a visit next week. 下周我打算拜访你。 He'd like me to look after his pet dog. 他愿意让我照看他的宠物狗。 I'd like to have gone with you，but I was busy then. 我本打算同你一起去的，但当时我很忙。
10. check n. &vt.
(1) n. 检查，核对；发票，支票 We should have a check on the quality of all goods leaving the factory. 我们应当对全部货物在出厂前进行质量检查 We have kept the SARS in check for a year now. 到目前为止我们已控制SARS这种疾病一年了 I've lost the check for my coat. 我把大衣的发票弄丢了 I always pay bills by check．我总是用支票付账
(2) vt. 阻止，制止，控制；核查；调查；托运或寄存 Will you please check these figures? 请检查这些数字有无错误好吗？ Check your coat at the door. 把你的外套寄存在入口处、 〔辫析〕check，examine，test check指核对，核实，特别是对数量或质量加以验证； examine着重指检查、研讨及审查； test指测验、检验、测试一个人的某种能力 Please check in at the airport an hour before your plane leaves． 你要在飞机起飞前一个小时到机场办理登机手续。 I examined students in English. 我测验学生英文。 I'd better have my eyes tested. 我该去检查视力了。
11. across prep.（表示运动）横过，越过，（表示位置）在……的对面 The old man walked across the road. 那个老人小心地走过马路 He lives across the street from us. 他住在我们对面的大街上 A boy helped a blind man across the street. 一个小男孩帮助一位盲人过马路 [辫析] across，past，through across表示“横过，横穿，越过”，它的含义与on, over有关，侧重于动作在某一物体或某一地方的表面进行。across作介词还可表示“在……讨过”；作副词表示“对过”或“横过”。 past表示从某物旁边经过 [注意] past是介词，不可与动词pass相混淆。 We walked past the hospital.＝We passed by the hospital. 我们从医院旁边经过 through表示“通过，穿过”，它的含义与in有关，侧重动作在某一物体空间里进行，含有从中间通过之意。through还可表示“凭借”“（做）完”等意。 The ship sailed across the Atlantic. 这只船横渡过了大西洋 She is talking to the neighbour across the garden fence. 她正隔着篱笆与邻居
说话： He was absent-minded and walked past the station. 他走路时心不在焉而走过了车站。 The policeman forced his way through the crowd. 警察奋力穿过人群 He walked through the street and found nothing alive. 他走过街道，没有发现有生命的东西。
12. in the south of, to the south of与on the south of in the south of 在...... 的南边（部），通常指某一范围之内； to the south of 在……在南边，强调越出了某一范围； on the south of 在...... 南面，强调两者毗部，接攘。 He lives in the north of Scotland．他住在苏格兰北部 The church is to the south of London. 那座教堂在伦敦的南边。 China faces the Pacific on the east．中国东临太平洋。 〔注意〕我们只有笼统地指明方向时，可以不出现介词。 Shandong is north of Fujian. 山东位于福建北部 South of the mountain，there is a big river. 山的南部，有一条大河。
13. cover v．盖，掩盖；行过（路程）；报道；读 n．盖子，封面，封底，包皮 〔常用短语〕 cover sth． 盖住…… cover... with 用……盖住…… cover 30 pages 读三十页 be covered with... 用……覆盖 cover an area of… 占地面积为，??… cover 2,000 li 走了两千里 cover a conference 报道会议 under cover 隐藏着 under the cover of 在……的掩护下，趁着 The book with a hard cover is more expensive. 精装书比较贵 Flood water covered the fields by the river. 洪水淹没了河边的田地。 Rubble covered the pavement．人行道上铺了碎石块。 The chief editor sent a reporter to cover the event. 主编派记者去报道这一事件 Her lectures covered the subject throughly. 她的演讲对这个问题阐述得很透彻 The Red Army men covered 25，000 1i during the Long March. 长征中，红军走过了两万五千里 〔辫析〕 discover，uncover, find out discover指“发现”某种本来存在、而以前未被发现的事物或不为人所知的东西。 find out常用来指“弄明白、搞清楚、查出（某一真相）”，作“发现”
讲时，是指发现一种无形而隐藏的东西。 uncover还可表示“发现、揭露、暴露”等意思，一般用于贬义，其宾语常常是：relic遗物、古迹，plot阴谋、圈套、（秘密）计划，conspiracy共谋、阴谋 Do you know who discovered America? 你知道是谁发现美洲的吗？ Think it over and you'll find out the answer to the question. 仔细想想，你就会找到问题的答案 He uncovered the famous picture. 他揭开了那幅名画的覆盖物 14. work n．作品；成果；制品 v．运转；开动；工作 Almost everyone's success is achieved by hard work. 几乎每个人的成功都是靠艰苦的劳动获得的。 This vase is a wonderful piece of work. 这个花瓶是一件了不起的作品 He likes 0. Henry's works. 他喜欢欧?亨利的作品 [辫析］work on，work at，work out work on和work at都可以作“致力于；从事于”解释，相当于be engaged in，常常可以互相代替。但当表示“克服（困难）；解决（难题）”时，较倾向于用work at；在表示“致力于创作或制造时”，较倾向于用work on work out\"解出，找出答案”，可以看作是work on的结果，相当于find或have got, Here he worked on a short film，which won him a job as the youngest film director in the world. 他制作了一部短片，这使他获得了一份工作，并成为世界上最年轻的电影导演。 It's said that he's working at/on a new novel. 据说他正在写一部小说 He liked to work at difficult problems in maths. 他喜欢解数学难题。 We have made up our minds to research on till we work out the facts of what has caused the pollution. 我们决心研究下去，直到弄清导致污染的根源 15. more than：表示“多于，超过，不仅仅，不止” more... than；表示“与其说，倒不如说” no more than表示“不过，仅仅；同一样不” not more than表示“至多，不超过” More than one member was against the plan. 不止一个人反对该计划 There are more than sixty students in our class. 我们班有60多个学生 He is more than our teacher and he is our friends. 他不仅仅是我们的老师，也是我们的朋友 His father is more disappointed than angry. 他父亲与其说是生气，倒不如说是失望 The little boy is not more than 5 years old. 这个小男孩不超过五岁。（最大只有五岁） The little
boy is no more than five years old. 这个小孩只有五岁。（言年龄小） [注意]more than one和many a后均跟可数名词单数，谓语动词用单数，但是more十可数名词复数＋ than one作主语时，谓语动词用复数 Many a student likes playing football. 不止一个学生喜欢踢足球。 More workers than one were for his opinions. 不止一个工人支持／赞成他的观点。 16.“由于，因为”的几种表达方式 because＋从句 because of＋n . thans to十n. owing to十n. due to＋n. as a （the）result of十n. on account of十n. (1) because为从属连词，后跟一个完整的句子构成原因状语从句而because of则是一个介词短语，后接名词或动名词 He didn't ao to school because of his illness. = He didn’ t go to school because he was ill. 他没去上学是因为生病了。 He was punished by his teacher because of his cheating on exams. =He was punished by his teacher because he cheated on exams. 他因考试作弊受到老师的惩罚。 ( 2 )thanks to这一短语介词，含有、‘幸亏、多亏、亏得、依赖、依靠、由于、因为”等意思几它引导的短语，可以表达正面意思（近似于原意“感谢”），也可用于讽刺口吻中（近似于讽刺口吻的“感谢”）它引导的短语在句中用作状语时，大多放在句首，也可以置于句末. My mother is getting better and better，thanks to the doctor. 多亏了医生，我母亲才一天天康复起来（感谢的口吻） Thanks to your help，I passed the test. 幸亏有你的帮助，我通过了刚验〕（正面意思）
(3) owing to意为“由于，因为”，在句中通常用作状语，可置于句首或句末。 Owing to my absence，they had to put off the class meeting till next week. 由于我不在，他们只好将班会推迟到下个星期. Xiao Wang could not come to the ball（，）owing to a bad cold. 因为得了重感冒，小王没能去打（踢）球.
(4) due to意为“由于”，它引导的短语在句中一般用作表语或定语，但在很多场合也可与owing to通用，作状语. 这一用法在现今英语中也很流行，但不如owing to那么
严谨. The accident is due to your careless driving. 那件意外事故归因于你驾驶不小心.
(5) as a ( the) result of意为 “ 由于......的结果”，一般用作状语。 He was late as a result of the traffic jam. 由于交通阻塞，他迟到了。
(6) on account of意为“因......缘故，由于”它引导的短语在句中通常作状语，可置于句首或句末。 The train was delayed on account of a heavy snow. 由于一场大雪火车来迟了。
17. such pron．这样的物（事、人） adj.（无比较级和最高级）这样的，如此的 One such dictionary is enough. 这样的词典一本就够了 We are not such fools as to believe him. 我们不是那样的愚人，竟会相信他。
〔注意〕(1 )such放在名词前时，这个名词带或不带形容词都可以。such可在句中修饰不可数名词，而so不可以这样用。
（2）such一般用来加强语气，强调名词或形容词的意思。若有比较的意思时常用like this/that的形式来表达。 [辨析]such as， such...as， such...that such as（用于列举事物） such...as...（用于定语从句） such...that（引导结果状语从句） There are many books in the library such as novels，storybooks and picture books. 这家图书馆有很多书，诸如小说、故事书、图画书之类. I went to the shop and bought such things as bread，wine and vegetables. 我去商店买了这些东西，如面包、葡萄酒和蔬菜。 He is such a lovely student as every teacher likes. 他是如此可爱的学生，以致于每个老师都喜欢他 Such things a, you have bought are not good value for money.
你买的这些东西根本不值所花的钱。 She is such a beautiful girl as many young men love. =She is such a beautiful girl that many young men love her. 她是如此的漂亮，以致于很多年轻男子喜欢她。
18. Between France and Spain is another mountain range-the Pyrenees. 法国与西班牙之间横亘着另外一条山脉------庇里牛斯山。 当地点状语放在句首时，所引导的句子应用完全倒装，即地点状语十谓语十主语＋其他 On her left sat her husband．她左边坐着她丈夫。 Beyond the river lives an old fisherman. 有个老渔夫住在河的对岸：
所谓完全倒装，就是将谓语动词置于主语前。完全倒装一般具有以下两个条件：①谓语动词是单个（即不带情态动词、助动词或be动词）的不及物动词，且只限于一般现在时或一般过去时；
②主语只能是名词。完全倒装一般有以下四种情况：
(1)以here等副词开头引出的完全倒装 在描述情景时，为了使景象更生动，有时把here, there, now, then, out, in, up, down, off , away等方向性副词位于句子开头时，句子用完全倒装。此时
，①句子主语必须是名词；
②谓语动词通常是be,come , go, run, rush, fly, follow, fall等表示位移的不及物动词，且为一般现在时态；
③其中的here ,there不是表示地点，而是用以引起对方注意。 Here comes the
bus．汽车来了。 There goes the bell．铃响了。 Here are some advertisements about cars. 这儿有几则有关汽车的广告。
(2)以表语或状语开头引出的完全倒装 有时为了强调，或者为了使句子平衡，或者为了使上下文连接得更加紧密，就将表语和地点状语（多为介词短语）置于句首，谓语动词也常置于主语前，构成完全倒装。 Among the people was a man named Brown. 在这些人中有一个叫布朗的人。 On the top of the hill stands an old temple. 这个山顶上有一座庙。 (3 )there be结构及其变体的完全倒装。 There is a tall tree in front of the house. 这所房子前面有一裸大树。 〔注意〕在there be结构中，可以代替be的还有以下动词：live，lie，stand，appear，rise，remain，happen，come，go等。 Once there lived an old fisherman in a village by the sea. 从前，在海边的一个村子里住着一位老渔夫。
(4)直接引语放在句首引起的完全倒装。 若直接引语的部分或全部放在句首，并且说话人是名询时，将say或ask置于说话人前，构成完全倒装。 “Are you ready?\"asked the teacher. “准备好了没有？”老师问道。 \"It is unbelievable！”said Alfred Butts. 阿尔弗雷德?布滋说，“这真叫人难以置信！”
19. There is a mountain range called the Alps. 有一座山脉叫做阿尔卑斯山脉。 called the Alps被叫做阿尔卑斯山脉，此处，called the Alps是过去分词短语作后置定语，相当于which is called the Alps，这是一个定语从句，过去分词作定语，表示被动和完成。 a boy named Jack一个名叫杰克的男孩。 They built a monument in memory of the people killed in the war. 他们建了一座纪念碑，用以怀念在战争中遇害的人们。 不定式、过去分词和现在分词的被动式作定语的区别： 这三种形式作定语，主要体现在动作发生的时间上。
(1)过去分词表示的动作或是在谓语所表示的动作之前发生，或是没有一定的时间性。 Have you read the novel written by Dickens? 你读过这本狄更斯写的小说吗？ He is a man loved and respected by all. 他是个受众人爱戴的人。
(2)现在分词的被动式作定语时表示的动作正在发生或是与谓语动词所表示的动作同时发生： Listen！The song being sung is very popular with the students. 听！现在唱的这首歌很受学生欢迎；
(3）不定式的被动式作定语时，表示一个未来的动作。 The question to be discussed at tomorrow's meeting is a very important one. 明天会上讨论的这个问题是个很重要的问题 试比较： a house being built now一座正在被建造的房子 a house to be built next year一座要建造的房子 a house built last year一座去年建成的房子
20. Paris is the capital and largest city of France， situated on the River Seine．巴黎是法国的首都，也是法国最大的城市，坐落在塞纳河畔。 如果两个名词指两个人或物，通常每个名词前都要加冠词；如果两个名词指同一个人或物，一般只用一个冠词。 He sent her the red and the white roses. 他送给她红玫瑰和白玫瑰（两种） He sent her the red and white rose. 他送给她红白相间的玫瑰（一种） The driver and the manager went to the company. 司机和经理一同来到公司。（两个人） The driver and manager went to the company. 经理自己开着车来到公司。（一个人）
21. None of them speaks Spanish．没有一个人说西班牙语。 none pron 没有一个，无一 None of the money on the table is mine. 桌上的钱没有一分是我的。 None of us enjoy getting up early．我们中间没人喜欢早起 But none of them has been turned to stone yet！ 但是他们谁也没有变成石头！ no one, none,nothing的用法
(1 ) no one单独使用，只用于指人，可以回答who提出的问题 -Who will get to station？谁要到车站去？ -No one．没有人。 (2) none一般与of短语连用，指人或物。none of the boys/the money/them中，none强调数的概念。none可以回答how mane ,how much提出的问题 He has many friends. But none of them can really help him when he is in trouble． 他有许多朋友，但当他遇到困难时却没有一个能真正帮他。 -How many Chinese stamps do you collect? 你收集了多少中国邮票？ -None一张没有。
（3) nothing表示“什么也没有，没有东西”，是全部否定，作主语、宾语或表语。 Nothing can stop us marching forward. 没有什么东西能阻止我们前进
22. The expanded European Union has a population of more than half a billion people，twice as big as the population of the United States. 扩大后的欧盟拥有五亿多人口，这个数目是美国人口的两倍。
（1）population n. population的用法要注意以下四点：
①当问及国家、城市、地区等有多少人口时，可以用。 What is the population of China? 中国有多少人口？
②表达拥有多少人口时，我们常用have a population of.... 或some place with a population of. . . 。 China has a population of more than 1.3 billion people. 或China is a country with a population of more than 1.3 billion people. 中国有十三亿多人口
③当population置于句首充当句子的主语时，且其前有分数、百分数修饰时，谓语动词用复数。 About 80% of the Chinese population are Han people. 中国人口的80％是汉族 Two thirds of the population of this area are farmers. 这一地区三分之。的人口是农民 ④修饰population这个词，常用big, large, small，而不用much, many等。 China has a large population．中国人口众多
(2) twice是名词，在这里表示倍数，倍数的表示法常有以下四种：
① A is... times + adj. /adv．的比较级＋than B This bridge is three times longer than that one. 这座桥比那座桥长三倍。 At least，the train runs five times faster than the boat. 火车的速度至少比小船快五倍
② A is... times as + adj. /adv．的原级＋as B This bridge is four times as long as that one. 这座桥是那座桥的四倍长 At least，the train runs six times as fast as the boat火车的速度至少是小船的速度的六倍
③ A is... times the size/ length/ width/ height/ depth＋of ＋B This bridge is four times the length of that one. 这座桥是那座桥的四倍长 After the experiment，the plant is six times the height of what it was before． 试验之后，植物的高度是原来的六倍
④ The size/length/height/depth/width＋of A＋is＋… times of＋B The length of this bridge is four times of that bridge. 这座桥是那座桥的四倍长 Your room is three times as big as mine. Your room is twice bigger than mine. =The size of your room is inree times that of mine. =your room is three times the size of mine.
你房间的面积是我房间的面积的三倍 Module 2 Develop and Develod Countries
一、重点单词 hunger n．饥饿 income n．收入 poverty n．贫穷 human n..（与动物等对比的）人 development n．发展 unfortunate adj.不幸的；遗憾的 location n．位置；所在地 tourism n．旅游业 transport n．交通工具 measure vt.测定；测量；评估 goal n．目标 expectancy n.（根据概率得出的）预期数额 position n．位置 educate vt．教育；培养；训练 household n. 一家人；家庭 homeless adj．无家可归的 charity n．慈善团体 crowded adj.拥挤的 freeway n．高速公路 inhabitant n．居民 similarity n．类似；相似 industrial adj.工业的 polluted adj.受到污染的 smart adj．漂亮的；整洁的；时髦的 vast adj.巨大的；庞大的；浩瀚的 entertainment n.娱乐 exchange n．交换
二、词汇拓展 hunger-hungry ( adj.） human-humanism ( n.）人道主义 educate-education(n) unfortunate-unfortunately ( adr. ) -fortunately（反义词）一fortunate ( adj.）-fortune(n) transport-transportation( n.） industrial-industry ( n.）工业一industrialization( n.）工业化
三、重点短语 at the top of 在……顶端 at the bottom of 在……底部 make effort 努力 be connected with 与……有联系 be close to 接近，靠近 a period of time 一段时间 up to 直到 make progress 取得进步 agree to do 同意做…… reduce... to 减至 increase...by 以……的幅度增加 move out of 脱离，摆脱 make sure 确保 be similar to 与……相似 in recent years 近年来 as a result 结果
四、重点句式 while引起的并列句“介词短语／副词＋谓语十主语”的倒装 with复合结构 Beijing has a lot more inhabitants than Sydney. There are fewer tourists
in Beijing than in Sydney。 I think Sydney has less rain than Beijing. Sydney doesn't have as much pollution as Beijing. 五、语法归纳 连词
（一）连词的定义 用来连接词、短语、从句与句子的词叫连词。连词是一种虚词，在句中不重读，不能独立担任句子成分。根据在句中所起的作用，连词可分为并列连词和从属连词两类：
（二）并列连词 连接具有并列关系的词、短语或句子的连词叫并列连词。根据其意义，并列连词又可分为表示联合、转折、选择和因果四种关系的连词。
1．表示联合关系的并列连词 表示联合关系的并列连词有：and（和），both... and...（既……又…… ) , neither... nor...（既不……也不……）， not only... but also...（不但……而且…... ) , as well as（除……外……也……）。 They can both read English and speak it well.他们能读英语而且说得很好。 Neither you nor he is wrong．你和他都没有错。 He not only had read the book but also remembered what he had read. 他不仅记得读了那本书，而且还记得读过的内容。 1 am a teacher and he is a doctor．我是老师，他是医生。 He has experience as well as knowledge.（＝He has not only knowledge but also experience.） 他既有知识，又有经验。 Neither I nor he has seen the film. 我没看过这部电影，他也没看过
2．表示转折关系的并列连词 表示转折关系的并列连词有：but（可是，但是），while(而，然而），still（但是，然而），yet（可是），however（然而，但是），whereas（而），nevertheless（然而，不过）。 I am willing, yet unable．我心有余而力不足。 He is short，while his brother is tall.他个子矮，而他兄弟个子高－ He worked hard, however, he failed．他很努力，然而还是失败了。( however可置句首、句中或句末） The pain was
bad，still he did not complain.他痛得厉害，可是他并没有呻吟
3．表示选择关系的并列连词 表示选择关系的并列连词有：or（或），or else（否则），otherwise（要不然），either. . . or...（或，??…或……，不是……就是….. ) , rather than（而不，也不） I must work hard，or I'll fail in the exam.我得认真学习，否则不能通过考试。 Either you or I am to blame．不是你就是我会受到批评 You can either do it by yourself,or you can ask someone else to do it. 你可以自己做，也可以请人做。 Seize the chance, otherwise( or else) you'll regret it． 抓住机会，否则你会后悔的。( otherwise, or else常接在祈使句后面） You can either stay at home or go fishing.你可以呆在家里，或是去钓鱼： He went rather than stay as an unwelcome guest.他走了，不愿留下来做个不受欢迎的客人。
4．表示因果关系的并列连词 表示因果关系的并列连词有：so(所以）,for（因为） It is moming,for the birds are singing．是早晨了，因为鸟叫了。 It was late, so I went home．天色已晚，因此我就回家了。 ［注意］then（那么，因而）,thus（因而），hence（因此），therefore（因此，所以）等副词常可放句首表示因果关系He was busy,therefore he could not come．他忙，因此不能来。 He studied hard，thus he got a full mark.他很用功，因而得了满分、 His car broke down，thus he was late for work.他的车坏了，因此他上班迟到。 It is winter now，hence the days will be shorter.现在是冬天，因此白天会短些。
（三）从属连词 用来连接主句和从句的连词叫从属连词从属连词可分为两类：引导名词性从句的从属连词和引导状语从句的从属连词
1．引导名词性从句的从属连词 引导名词性从句的从属连词有连接词that, whether
和if，这些连接词在句中不充当任何句子成分；连接代词主要有who, whom, whose, which, what等，它们在句中可作主语、宾语、定语等；连接副词主要有when, where, how, why等，它们在句中可作状语（详情见名词性从句）。 We know( that）the earth goes round the sun.我们知道地球围绕太阳运转（宾语从句） What we need is more time.我们需要的是更多的时间。（主语从句） That's what I want．那就是我想要的。（表语从句） The news that our team had won was very exciting.我们队赢了，这消息十分令人振奋。（同位语从句）
2．引导状语从句的从属连词 (1）引导时间状语从句的从属连词： when(当……时），while（在……期间），as（当……时，一边……一边），after（在……之后），before（在……之前），since（自从……以来），till/until（直到，直到……才），once（一旦..... ) , as soon as（一......就..... ) , the moment/instant（一……就……），no sooner... than（刚……就……），hardly... when（刚……就……）等 Once you begin，you must go on.一旦你开了头，你就必须继续下去 When it rains，I go to school by bus.下雨时，我坐公共汽车上学。
(2)引导原因状语从句的从属连词： as（由于）,because（因为），since（既然）等。 He didn't go to school because he was ill．他因为生病没去上学。 Since everybody is here，let's begin. 既然大家都在这里、我们就开始吧 (3）引导地点状语从句的从属连词： where（在……地方），wherever（无论在……哪里）等。 Wherever she may be，she will be happy.她无论在什么地方都快乐 Where there is a will, there is a way．有志者，事竟成。
(4）引导条件状语从句的从属连词： if（如果），unless（除非），so/as long as（只要）等 He will not come unless he is invited.除非被邀请，否则他是不会来的。 You'll be late for the class if you don't hurrv.如果你不快点，你就会上课迟到。
(5）引导目的状语从句的从属连词： that（以便），so that（为了），in order that（为了）,lest（以防，免得）,in case（以防，免得）等、 She took medicine on time in order that she might get well soon．为了快点康复，她按时吃药。 I came here that I might take a good look at the new bridge. 我来这儿，为的是好好看看这座新桥
(6)引导结果状语从句的从属连词： so（结果），so that（结果）,so... that/such... that（如此……以致），that（以致）等 It was very cold，so that the water in the bowl froze.天气很冷，碗里的水都结冰了 He is such a good student that we all like him.他是个好学生，我们都喜欢他：
(7)引导让步状语从句的从属连词： though/although（虽然），as（虽然）,even if/even though（即使）,however（无论怎样），whatever（无论什么），whoever（无论谁），no matter how/what/which/...（无论多么／什么／哪一个……）等。 Even if you were here yesterday，you couldn't help him, 即使昨天你在这，你也帮不了他 Though he is old，he still works hard.虽然他老了，可是他还努力工作。
(8）引导方式状语从句的从属连词： as（正如），as if/as though（好像，似乎）等 He speaks English as if he were an Englishman.他讲起英语来就像是英国人似的 Use a book as a bee does a flower.像蜜蜂利用花一样去利用书籍吧： (9）引导比较状语伏句的从属连词： as（如…... ) , as... as. . .（像一样），not so... as（与……不一样）,than（比）等 He works harder than before．他比以前更努力工作。 His elder sister is as tall as his mother.他姐姐和他母亲一样高
（四）部分连词的用法比较 1．when和while 两个词都可以表示“当……时”，引导时间状语从句when引导的时间状语从句的谓语动词既可以是延续性的，也可以是终止
性的；while引导的时间状语从句的谓语动词只能是延续性的。 My brother came in when/while I had dinner.我弟弟进来时我在吃饭 The train had just started when we arrived at the station.我们刚到火车站火车就走了 He was doing his homework when I came in.（当）我进来时，他正在做家庭作业 I came in when/while he was doing his homework.当他在做家庭作业时，我走了进来 While/When I was in the town，I saw him twice.（当）我在城里时，见过他两次 Strike while the iron is hot．趁热打铁。． when还可译作这时while还可译作“而” He was playing football outside when it began to rain. 他在外面踢足球，这时开始下起雨来。 He is tall while his elder brother is short. 他个子高，而他哥哥个子矮
2. because，since.和as because引导的从句通常表示说话人认为听话人不知道的原因或理由，从句往往是整个主从复合句的重心。 He was annoyed because he missed the bus. 他感到为难是因为他没有赶上那班车 since和as表示原因时，往往表示人们显然已知的理由或原因；因此，侧重点是主句的内容，原因只作附带说明。在语气上，becausc最强，since次之（在意义上相当于汉语中的“既然”),as最弱 Since his method doesn't work，let's try yours. 既然他的方法不起作用，我们就试一试你的。 As she was in a bad mood，we left her alone. 由于她心情不好，我们不去打扰她了。 He is absent frorn school because he is ill. 因为他生病，所以他没来上课 Because/As it was wet，we went there by bus. 因为下雨，所以我们乘车去那儿。 Since everybody is here，let's begin. 既然大家都到了，我们就开始吧。
3.if和unless 引导条件状语从句的连词，主要是if和unless,由if条件状语从句可以是真实的条件句，也可以非真实条件句．真实条件句所表示的条件指的是事实，即可以是实现的事，非真实条件句指的是与事实相反或不大可能实现的事． If it rains, the match will be cancelled（取消）． 如果天下雨，比赛将被取消 If I were you, l should
consult（请……看病）a doctor. 我要是你，我就去看医生 If I had tried hard last term，I would have succeeded. 如果上学期我努力的话，我现在就已经成功了 unless在意义上相当于if... not You will fail unless you work harder. 除非你努力，否则你不会成功。 Do not come unless I call you. 我没叫你，你就不用来。
4. though和as 两个词都可表示“虽然”、引导让步状语从句though引导的从句用正常语序；as引导的从句要用倒装语序，即把从句中的表语、状语或动词原形放在as之前。 Cold as it was，he went on working.Though it was cold，he went on working. 尽管天气冷，可他仍继续工作 Child as he is，he knows a lot.Though he is a child，he knows a lot. 虽然他还是个孩子，可是他很懂事 Fast as you read，you can't finish the book in three days. Though you read fast，you can't finish the book in three days. 尽管你读得快，你也不能在三天内读完这本书、： Try as he might，he couldn't get rid of the difficulty. Though he might try，he couldn't get rid of the difficulty. 不管怎样努力，他还是摆脱不了困难。
5 .if和whether
(1) 表示“是否”时，两个词都能引导宾语从句 I wonder if/whether you can
examine him now. 不知你现在是否可以给他检查一下。
(2) ［注意］①如果主句的谓语是短语动词用whether,而不用if. Everything
depends on whether we have enough money. 一切都取决于我们是否有足够的钱。
(3) ②某些动词（如discuss）后的宾语从句，用whether而不用if来引导。 They
discussed whether they should help her. 他们商议他们该不该帮助她。
(4) ③宾语从句移置句首时，用whether，而不用if Whether it is true or not, I
can't say．这是不是真的，我不敢说。 ④宾语从句为否定形式时，通常用if, 而不用whether。 I asked her if he wouldn't come．我问她他是不是会来。
(5) (2) if'可译作“如果”，引导条件状语从句 If I were you, I would not go．如
果我是你，我就不去。
(6) (3) whether可译作“不管，无论”，引导让一步状语从句 Whether he agrees
or not，I shall do that. 不管他同意与否我都要做这事。
(7) （4) whether可以引导主语从句、表语从句、同位语从句，接不定式．或接or
not等（if则不能） Whether he will come or not is unknown. 还不知道他来不来。（主语从句） The question is whether it is worth doing. 问题是这件事是否值得去做 I have no idea whether he is there. 我不知道他是否在那里（同位语从句） I don't know whether he will do it or not. 我不知道他是否会做这事。（接or not) She hasn't decided whether to go or not，她还没有决定去还是不去。（接不定式）
六、知识*能力聚焦 1. by prep.
(1)表示“相差”，指增加或减少的程度 The water level of the lake was going to rise by 63 metres.湖里的水位要升高63米 We defeated the opposing team by 3 runs (by a score of 5 to 2 )．我们以3分的优势（5比2)击败对方
(2)表示单位，“以……计、依据”( by后面的名词之前通常一要加定冠词） I'm paid by the hour．我是按时计酬的 Is this cloth sold by the metre?‘这块布是按米出售的
吗？ We can buy the eggs by the dozen.我们可以按打买鸡蛋
(3)by还可用于表达其他意义． There is a tree by the water.水边有棵树（指离水近） They are coming by the highway．他们正沿公路而来 I took your pen by mistake．我错拿了你的钢笔 The pool is 15 meters by 50 meters.这个游泳池长50米，宽15米、 Keep close by，or you will get lost.跟近一点，否则你会迷路的 What time is it by your watch？你的表几点了？ Have you read any books by Lu Xun?你读过鲁迅写的书吗？ The children went in two by two.孩子们两个两个地进来了 The old man made a living by selling newspapers.这冬老人以卖报为生
2. up to up to直到……，至多...... be up to＝be busy doing忙于 it’s up to sb.todo sth 由某人负责做某事 be up to =be fit for胜任（常用否定句和疑问句） Up to four people can live in the room. 这间房里最多能住四个人。 What are you up to？你在忙什么？ It's up to us to help those in need.我们有责任帮助那些有困难的人 What are these naughty boys up to?这些淘气的孩子们在干什么？ It's up to me to get the four of us moving.由我来负责我们四个人的行动 [常用短语] up to now 直到现在 up-to-date 现代的；包含最新信息的
3. measure vt.＆Vi.＆n.
(1)vt. measure the distance (the length)测量距离（长度） measure sb for a new suit为某人量尺寸做衣服 measure ones ability估计／衡量某人的能力
（2)vi．度量
（3）n. to ones measure 根据某人的尺寸 take measures to do sth 采取措施做某事 The dress designer measured her customers before making new clothes. 服装设计师在为其顾客做衣服之前先为顾客量尺寸。 Let me make clothes to your own measure. 让我按照你的尺寸做衣服吧！ The police measured the speed at which the car was traveling.警察测量出该汽车行驶的速度， The room measures five meters across．房间宽5米 一How long is this rope？一I don't know，I must measure it. “这根绳子有多长？”“我不知道，我得量一量．” My mother is measuring me for clothes. 我妈妈在给我量尺寸做衣服 His eyes measured the newcomer from top to bottom. 他的眼睛上下打量着新来的人。 We must take necessary measures to solve these problems one by one. 我们必须采取措施逐个解决这些问题。 They took strong measures against reckless drivers. 他们对于鲁莽的驾驶员采取强硬措施。
[常用短语] for good measure另外；外加 short measure分量不足 measure one's length全身跌倒躺在地上 take someone's measure/get the measure of someone估量某人（的品格，能力等） to one's measure按某人的尺寸 take measure采取措施
4. all
(1) adj.所有的，全部的，整个的 I have lived here all my life.我在这里度过了一生
(2) pron．全部，一切 All the children are busy.所有的孩子都很忙一 So all she could do was to go back home.她所能做的一切就是回家去。
［注意］ (1)all既可以修饰可数名词，也可以修饰不可数名词，但如果它所修饰的名
词前没有其他的“限定词”（如定冠词、物主代词等），一般不用all of.
(2)all在句子中要放在冠词、物主代词和其他“限定词”之前
(3)a11后面可以接一个定语从句，但定语从句的引导词只能用that，不能用what此时all可能有两个含义：一个相当于everything，一个相当于the only thing( s)
(4)对all构成的否定是部分否定，意思是“并不是全部……”，要构成完全否定的意思，需用‘`none [常用短语］ all day long整天 all night long整夜 all over 全身，到处 all the afternoon 整个下午 after all毕竟，终究 all kinds of各种各样的 all one's life某人一生，终身 all over the country (world）全国（世界） in all总共，总计 not all（用作主语时表示部分否定）并非全部
5. position n．位置；状况，职位；姿态；（社会）地位，身份；形势，状况，处境；意见，主张；见解；立场 fix a ship's position in the sea测定船在海上的方位 take a position as a typistt担任打字员职务 a high position in society很高的社会地位 in a favourable/position处于有利的位置 a lying position躺姿 one’s position on the prontem某人对这个问题的看法 in a position to ( do sth.）能够（做某事） in/out of position在／不在适当的位置 Please explain the house's position on the hill.请说明那座房子在山坡上的具体位置 She lay in a comfortable position.她以舒适的姿势躺着 He is a person of position.他是一个有地位（身份）的人 We are in a difficult position.我们现在的处境困难
6. although和while although和while都是连词，都可引导让步状语从句，但在用法上有很大区别。 although为从属连词，引导让步状语从句，意为“虽然，尽管”，
相当于though，所引导的句子通常置于句首. Although it was only four o'clock，the lights were already on. 尽管才四点，灯却已经亮了 Although he is still young his hair is grey. 虽然他还很年轻，但头发已经灰白一双 while意为“然而，但是”，用作并列连词，表示前后的对比，所引导的句子不能置于句首 Jack likes football，while his brother likes basketball.. 杰克喜欢足球，而他的弟弟却喜欢蓝球.
[注意] while也可用作从属连词，引导让步状语从句，意为“虽然，但是”，可和although换用 While/Although we don't agree，we continue to be friends. 尽管我们意见不同，但我们还是朋友 While/Although it was so cold，he went out without an overeoat.虽然天气很冷，但他没有穿大衣就出去了．
7. unfortunate adj.不幸的 adv．不幸地，不幸运地 I would like to apologize for this unfortunate mistake. 我谨就此令人遗憾的错误致歉。 She was unfortunate to miss the last train. 她不幸错过了最后一班列车 Unfortunately，he didn't pass the exam. 不幸的是，他没有通过考试．
8. share v.＆n
(1)v. ＂分享，分担，分配”，常用句式：share sth. with sb Would you share your newspaper with me'? 我们一起看报纸好吗？ Why didn't we share the expenses among us? 我们为何不一起分担费用呢？ I share a flat with four other people. 我和其他4人共用一个公寓 Let's share the pizza beticeen the two of us. 我们俩来分享这个比萨饼吧 His property was shared equally among his children. 他的财产被他的子女平分了.
(2) n. 一份，份额 I've not got my share of the cake yet. 我还没分得我的那份蛋糕．
9. mean v. （l）mean做动词，意思是“意味着…；有……的意思”，后常接名词或v.ing形式作宾语 What do you mean by saying so? 你这么说是什么意思？ What he said meant hiring some more workers. 他的意思是再雇一些工人 What does the word mean in this context？ 在这个上下文中，这个单词表示什么意思？ Missing the train means waiting for another hour. 错过这班火车意味着还要等上一个小时
(2) mean 还可作“打算，意欲”讲，但其后需接动词不定式 1 don't mean to say that you are wrong. 我并没有打算说你做得不对 1 meant to wait for you. But someone dragged me upstairs. 我本想等你，但有人把我拽到楼上去了。 lie meant no harm．他没有恶意。 Do you mean to go there without money? 你打算身无分文地去吗？ She said I ignored her，but 1 didn't mean to. 她说我忽视了她，但我并没有这个意思.
〔拓展〕means n.（单复数相同）方法，手段 〔常用短语〕by all means当然可以；by any mean、无论如何；by no mean、决不；by means of凭借，用
10. match n．比赛；对手；火柴v.相等；相似；相配；吻合 The man struck a match to light a cigar. 那人划着了一根火柴点燃一根香烟。 These shoes do not match；one is large and the other is small. 这双鞋不相配，一只大，一只小 No man can match him in singing.＝No man is match for him in singing. 在唱歌方面没有人能比得上他厂 His deeds match well with his words他说到做到 [常用短语] match for sb．某人的对手；meet one's match遇到对手；match up和谐； match up sth．把……拼成
一个整体；match up to sb./sth比得上；match sb. /sth. with sb. /sth．找到相配的人或物；match sb. /stli. against使较量；have a match举行一场比赛 [辨析]match，fit，suit match指品质、颜色、设计等方面，意为“与……相配” fit指尺码、款式适合。 suit多指合乎需要、品味、性格、条件、地位等 She was wearing a dress with a hat and gloves to match.她穿着一件与帽子和手套相配的裙子 The blue coat fits you better than the hlack one.这件蓝色的上衣比黑色的更适合你 Does the time suit you？这个时间对你合适吗？ No dish suits all tastes．没有合所有人口味的菜。
11. agree v．同意，愿意，答应 agree with sb. /one's idea/what sb. said 赞同，同意，与某人意见一致 agree to one's plan/suggestion/arrangement. . . 赞同某人的计划／建议／安排…… agree on sth．就某事双方达成协议 agree to do sth．同意做某事 agree with sb. about/on sth．同意某人某事 agree that同意…… one's words agree with one's deed、言行一致 food/climate agrees with slh.某人适应（某地的）食物／气候 agreement n．同意，一致 he in agreement with sb.与某人意见一致 reach/come to/arrive at no agreement没有达成协议
〔辫析〕agree with; agree to; agree on agree with＋某人或表示“意见，看法”的词； agree to＋表示“提议，办法，计划”的词； agree on十表示“具体协议的文件、计划、行动”的词（这时，主语常是协商一件事的人或单位） They agreed to the plan．他们同意这个计划、 He agreed with ire/what I said/my words.他同意我所说的话r They agreed on this point.他们在这一点上是一致的‘ [词汇拓展］ agreeable adj.使人愉快的，欣然同意的 agreement n．同意，一致，协定，协议 disagree vi．不一致，不适宜 disagreeable adj.不愉快的，不为人喜爱的，厌恶的 disagreement n.意见不同，不协调，争执，争论
12. way n.
(1)道路，路线，路途 Go along the way across the fields，please.请沿着这条路穿过田地 (2)方法，手段 The dog died because there was no way in which it could be brought back to the earth. 因为没有办法把狗带回地面，所以它死了。
[注意]在名词way后面的定语从句中，常常省略引导词that或in which因为the way表示方式，所以不能再用how. way后面还可以接不定式或of短语作定语。
「常用短语」 in a way 在某种程度上 on the/one's way 在路上 find a way 找到办法 make one's way to 向……走去 all the way 一路上，一直 out of the way 奇特，不寻常 fight one's way 奋勇前进 in the way 档路，妨碍 by the way 顺便说 feel one's way 摸索前进 push one's way 挤着前进 by the way of 由，经过 lose one's way 迷路 make way for 为……让路
[辫析]manner，way，method，fashion，means五个词都表示“方法，办法”之意，但有差别 manner意为“方法”，比way更为庄重，正规，意义广泛； way意为“方法”，普通用语，常跟in搭配； method意为“方式，方法”，指合乎逻辑或系统的方法； fashion意为“式样，方式”，比way更正式，含有“流行式样”之急； means意为“方式，手段”，常与by连用，更侧重一于做某事采取的手段：
13. surprise n. &v. (1) n．惊奇，惊讶 He expressed surprise that no one had offered to help.谁都不肯帮忙，他感到很诧异
(2) vt．使惊奇 It wouldn't surprise me if they lost.他们输了也不足为奇
［注意］surprise的现在分词和过去分词形式都可以在句中作表语。但surprised指人，某人对……感到吃惊； surprising指物或事情，某物令人吃惊。
「常用短语］ to one's surprise令某人吃惊的是 take by surprise突袭、突击 in surprise吃，凉地 be surprised to do sth．吃惊地做某事 surprise sb with a visit突然拜访某人 be surprised at对……感到惊讶
[辫析]surprise，shock，astonishment surprise为一般用语，“惊讶，吃惊”程度比后两者轻 shock尤其指对一些令人不愉快的未预料的事情的“惊讶，震惊，打击”，程度较surprise大 astonishment指因为一些意想不到的事或情况而吃惊，乃至于达到目瞪口呆的程度，在三者中它的程度最大 His success was a great surprise to me.他的成功令我大为惊讶。 The news was a great shock to me.这个消息使我很震惊。 She was filled with astonishment at the sight.她看到那景象，感到十分惊奇。
14. other adj.＆pron.
(1) adj.①另外的，其他的 Have you any other friends here?你在这儿还有其他朋友吗？ ②（常加定冠词）（两个中）另一个，其余的 Now open your the other eye.现在睁开你的另一只眼睛：
③不久前，以前的 In other times there was a king从前这儿有一个国王。
④隔一个 You should write on everv other lines.你应该隔行写
(2) pron. ①（复）另外的人（或事物） I don't like these. Can you show me any
others?我不喜欢这几个，你能不能另外拿几个给我看看？
②（复）其余的人（或事物） This magazine is better than the others.这本杂志比其余的好 「辫析」other, others，another，any other, the other other作形客词时，没有复效形式其复数形式“others”，只能作代词，意思是othen ones(另几个）或other people（另外的人） others:泛指另外的几个人或东西，the others指在一个范围之内的另一部分，因此是一种特指的用法 在一个数字或是few开头的复数词语前，用another表示＂另外的＂，不能用other \"any other＋名词”用于比较级的结构中，是指在同一个范围内，除去前面提到的那一个以外，其他任何一个如果相比较的成分不在同一个范围内，other便不需要了 指两个人或两个事物中的另一个，用the other表示，another泛指许多中的另一个
15. make sure make sure意为“弄清楚．查明白；确保”，是动词短语，后面常接“of/about＋名词或v. -ing形式”，也常接；that引导的宾语从句，其中sure可由certain替代 Arrive early at the station to make sure/certain of getting a ticket.早点到车站，以确保买到车票 Can you make sure/certain that you'll succeed?你能确保成功吗？ Please make sure that the house is locked before leaving.离开前一定要把门锁上
【辫析】make sure of, he sure of make sure of表示“弄清楚\" , be sure of则表示“对……有把握” We're sure of our success.我们有把握成功 Please make sure of the time and place of the meeting.请弄清楚会议召开的时间和地点 He is sure of his own answer.他确信他的答案是正确的
16. similar adj．类似的，相似的，同样的 be similar to与……相似，与……类似 All
big cities are quite similar.所有的大城市都大同小异 Her experiences were similar to mine.她的经历和我的类似
【辫析】similar，like，alike similar：指有明显的共同性质，但不完全一致 like作形容词或介词，指事物在外倪、性质或特征上非常相似以致于区别不开，在句中既可作表语，也可作定语此外，like可用作介词，alike可用作副词 alike与like同义，作形容词时，只用作表语 A similar mistake Occur; at the end of the paragraph.这一段末尾有一个性质类似的错误 Like thinking produces like ideas.相似的思维产生相似的思想 Like father,like son．有其父必有其子 The two buildings are very like．这两座楼很相似 He is a hit like his father.他有点像他爸爸。 A good teacher treats all his students alike.好老师对待学生一视同仁 He and his brother arevery much alike.他们兄弟俩太相似了.
17. used adj．用过了的，二手的；习惯于……的． v. 过去常常，过去习惯于 The astronauts soon got used to the condition of weightlessness.宇航员很快就习惯了失重状态。 ［辫析］used to，he used to used to是情态动词，表示过去存在但现在已不存在的情况或习惯.这里的to是不定式符号，后面跟动词原形意为“过去常常做某事”be used to，是“习惯于”的意思，可用于各种时态其中to是介词，后面接名词、代词或动词一ing形式意为“习惯于做某事”
「注意」强调界限性的状态，说明从不习惯到习惯时，常在used前面用get .或become代替b。这种现象尤其常见于将来时态和完成时态中 We used to work in山e same workshop.我们曾在同一个车间工作 There used to he many people smoking in the office，but now nobodv is allowed to. 过去在办公室里常常有许多人抽烟，现在不让人抽了 She isn't used to living in the county．她不习惯住在乡下 We've been
used to hard work．我们已经习惯干重活了 You will soon get used to the weather here.你很快会习惯这里的天气的 It's getting darker and darker outside.外面的天色越来越暗
18．辨析：but, however but conj.可是，然而，但是，尽管……还是用来连接两个并列成分／分句. however adv. 无沦如何，不论到什么程度，不过，然而.不能连接分句，必须用逗号分开，可以在句首，也可插在句中 Not one,but two！不是一，而是二！ He is young but very experienced.他虽然年轻，但是经验很丰富。 He has three daughters but no sons.他有三个女儿可是没有儿子 However did you get there？你是怎么到那里去的？ He hasn't arrived. He may，however，come later.他还未到，不过，他可能晚一会儿来 I'd like to go with you，however my hands are full.我很想和你一块儿去，可是我忙不过来
19. Although developed countries give some financial help，they need to give much more. 虽然发达国家提供了一些经济援助，但是提供援助的数量应该大大增加。 need v．需要，aux v．必须 n. 缺乏；缺少；需要；责任；义务；必需品；贫穷；困难 The hungry children were in need of food. 这些饥俄的孩子需要食物。
【用法】( 1) need用作情态动词时，只能用于疑问句、否定句和条件状语从句中；在肯定句中need只能用作实义动词，后面需要接带to的不定式
(2)need作情态动词用于疑问句时，如果作肯定的回答应该用must,
(3）在否定句中，可以用“need的否定形式＋动词的完成式”表示过去时间，这里“needn't have＋过去分词”表示做了不必要做的事
(4) need表示“需要”时，是实义动词，后面常接动名词作宾语，用主动形式表示被动意义，也可以用不定式替换动名词的主动式。
(5)情态动词need没有过去式，因此一般不表示过去时间。但在宾语从句中没有这种限制 need和dare的用法比较： need和dare两者既可用作情态动词也可用作行为动词，作行为动词时，有人称和数的变化，后接动词时要用带to的不定式，可用于肯定句、否定句或疑问句中，构成否定句或疑问句时要用助动词do, does, did；作情态动词时，没有人称和数的变化（dare可以有过去式dared )，直接接动词原形，只用于否定句和疑问句中，构成否定句或疑问句时不用助动词 另外，dare作情态动词时，还可用于条件句中，过去式为dared；作行为动词时，da，用于疑问句或否定句时，后面的to也可省略；I dare say是习惯说法，意为“我想，大概”、．
20. The most important goals are to：…；make sure that all children have education up to the age of 11；… 最重要的目标是：……；确保所有的孩子接受教育到11岁；… be to do sth.
(1)表示安排，意向或目的 The U. S. President is to visit China.美国总统将访问中国 (2)(表义务）应该做……，必须做…… You are to be back by six o'clock.你要在6点之前回来
(3)(表可能）会做…… How am I to know what has become of him?我怎么知道他的遭遇如何？
(4)注定（通常用过去时） He came to power，but was to pay dearly for it，soon he was killed. 他得到了权力，但是为此付出了昂贵的代价，不久他就被暗杀了
(5)（用于If...were to do句型）如果……的话 If you were to succeed，be sure to make full use of your time. 你如果想成功，就得充分利用时间 表将来的特殊形式： be going to do表示打算去做成可能发生某事 be to do表示计划好做某事 be about to do表示既将（正要）做某事，要友生的动作，其后不接具体的时间状语 go , come , leave,arrive等少数转移性不及物动词的现在进行时表示按计划、妥排即将发生的动作，并不那么 “固定” leave, open等词的一般现在时可表示“按照时刻表或日程安排发生某事”
21. The bottom ten countries are all African countries，with Sierra Leone（in West Africa）at the bottom of the list. 处于末端的十个国家均是非洲国家，塞拉利昂（西非）排在最后。 with Sierra Leone at the bottom是“with +宾语＋介词短语”构成的复合结构，在句中作状语“witli＋宾语＋ 介词短语”这种结构常在句中作状语，表方式、原因、伴随动作等 The boy came in，with a red rose in his hand．男孩进来了，手里拿着一枝红玫瑰 “with十复合宾语”除用介词作宾语补足语外，还有以下几种形式：
( 1 )with+n./pron.+to do（不定式表示将要发生的动作） With so mane things to do，I won't have time to go out tonight.有那么多的事要做，今晚我没时间出去
(2) with＋宾语＋adj. I used to sleep with the window open.我过去习惯开着窗子睡觉
(3) with＋宾语＋adv. I can't hear you clearly with the machines on.机器开动着，我听不清你说话
(4) with＋宾语＋v -ing With you standing there，I can't do my work.你站在那
里，我没法干活
(5）with＋宾语＋v.-ing With all his homework done，he weut back home.所有作业做完后，他回家了。
22. These are among the five richest countries in the world，so it is right that they should do so. 这些国家在世界上最富裕的五个国家之列，因此他们这样做是完全正确的。 常见的it句型： It is＋一段时间 + since从句 自从……有…… It will he＋一段时间＋hefore从句 再过……才…… It's just/not like sb to do sth.… 某人恰恰就是／可不是……这个样子 It's no good/use doing sth. . . 做……是没有益处／用处的 It's no wonder that 难怪…… It's hoped/said/believed/reported/thought. . . that... 人们希望／相信／报道／认为…… It's possible/probable/likely that... 很可能…… Sb.see（s）to it that... 某人务必使……／保证使…… It's suggested/ordered/required that... 有人建议／命令／要求……
（注意〕该句型中主语从句要用虚拟语气，即should＋动词原形，should可省略 It's certain that... 一定会…… [注意]该句型中certain不能用sure代替 It is time that... 是……时候了
〔注意〕该句型中主语从句也需用虚拟语气；谓语动词用过去时 It is/was十时间＋for sb. to do sth某人做……用了……时间 It + be＋强调部分＋that从句
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