Active reading (1)
1 Work in pairs and decide who is gossiping.
In fact, anybody could be saying these things. As sterotypes, the first is said by a male football fan, the second
is a women gossiping about the weather as part of small talk, the third is a young man / women gossiping to
another man about other people’s personal relationships.
2 Check () the statements about gossip which you think are true. 1 Men gossip just as much as women. No, men seem to gossip less than women.
√ 2 Men talk more about politics than women. Yes, this seems to be true.
√ 3 Men talk more about football than women. Yes, surely this is the case.
√ 4 Women talk more about themselves than men. No, I am not sure. Maybe men talk about themselves as much. √ 5 Men don’t admit they gossip.
Yes, I think this is true.
6 Women don’t admit they gossip.
No, I don’t agree, I think they like gossiping and do admit it.
Sex differences in English gossip rules
Reading and understanding
3 Choose the best answer to the questions.
1 What does the research quoted in the passage show? (a) Men talk more about politics than about football. (b) Women don’t like speaking about politics and art. (c) Men gossip just as much as women.
(d) Men and women gossip in exactly the same way.
2 What do men do when women are present? (a) They tend to talk about themselves. (b) They change their tone of voice.
(c) They speak more about politics and art than usual. (d) They let women do most of the speaking.
3 What is the main difference between male and female gossip? (a) Women don’t realize they are gossiping. (b) Men only gossip outdoors.
(c) Women speak more about themselves than men do. (d) Men speak more about themselves than women do. 4 What is “the tone rule” in women’s gossip?
(a) Use a special tone of voice to show that you are gossiping. (b) It is important to keep a flat unemotional tone.
(c) Don’t change your tone of voice when you start gossiping. (d) Always start gossiping by using a low whisper. 5 What is “the detail rule”?
(a) You should avoid boring details when you gossip.
(b) When gossiping about people it’s important to quote what they actually said.
(c) You should avoid talking about why people did something. (d) It doesn’t matter if your gossip is vague.
6 What does “the feedback rule” say about listeners? (a) They should keep quiet while someone is gossiping. (b) They shouldn’t show surprise.
(c) They should believe everything they hear. (d) They should show interest and enthusiasm.
4 Number the different parts of the passage in the order in which they occur.
1 Refer to recent research to dispel the myth about male gossip.
2 Reveal that men change topic of conversation when women are present. 3 Focus on the difference of content between male and female gossip. 4 Suggest that the myth about male gossip is really a problem of terminology.
5 Present a detailed, technical account of how women gossip.
6 Conclude that the vital difference between male and female gossip lies in the positive response of the audience.
Dealing with unfamiliar words
5 Match the words in the box with their definitions.
1 in a way that is impossible to doubt and easy to see (decidedly) 2 the reason that you do something (motive) 3 main, or most important (principal)
4 with qualities thought to be typical of men (masculine)
5 to criticize something, or to suggest it is not good enough for you (sniff)
6 lively or active (animated)
6 Complete the paragraph with the correct form of the words in Activity 5.
When Simona Ventura became the host of the Italian TV soccer programme, a lot of people (1) sniffed
at the decision. What could a woman do in such a (2) decidedly male-dominated world? They argued.
But the (3) motive behind the choice of Simona as the new presenter soon became apparent. Rather
than change to fit the programme – there is nothing (4) masculine about her – she created a new, more
modern show, the (5) principal aim of which is to entertain the whole family. The old style, lengthy and
rather technical analyses of football matches, has been replaced by a lively TV programme, which is
(6) animated by guest celebrities, dancers and singers, as well as extracts from the day’s top matches.
7 Replace the underlined words with the correct form of the following words. You may need to make other changes.
1 Cultural and intellectual programmes tend to be broadcast very late in the evening. (highbrow)
2 At the beginning I was very shy, but I soon got to know everyone and made friends. (initially)
3 The course I enjoyed most when I was studying linguistics was the one on the relationship between words and meanings. (semantics)
4 To find out more about English as a world language, we need reliable people who are able to give information. (informants)
5 She sent me a bunch of roses when I got the job, and I did the same when she got promoted. (reciprocated)
6 For some men there is still a feeling of embarrassment and unease about taking orders from a female superior. (stigma)
7 After the goal was disallowed, most of the words I could hear were swear words. (expletives)
8 You can’t speak like that to someone you don’t know. It’s a matter of rules of social behaviour. (etiquette)
9 Only after a very careful and time-consuming editing will this book be ready for publication. (exhaustive)
8 Answer the questions about the words and expressions.
1 Does scandalous behaviour (a) make you feel uncomfortable, or (b) leave you indifferent?
2 If you bemoan something, do you (a) express pleasure, or (b) complain about it?
3 If you rake over something, do you (a) want to forget it, or (b) keep talking about it?
4 If you are appreciative of something someone has done for you, do you (a) thank them, or (b) criticize them?
5 If a man has an effeminate manner, does he make you think of (a) a child, or (b) a woman?
6 Is camp behaviour (a) typical of, or (b) different from established norms about the traditional male way of doing things?
Reading and interpreting
9 Check () the writer’s main purposes in writing the passage. √ 1 to summarize findings from recent research
Most of the passage is taken up with research findings from both the writer and others. If you are
not sure about this, look at how many times words like study, research, findings, found, interviews, interviewed, informants etc are used and read the last two sentences of paragraph five and see how
verbs in the past tense in the second part are all reporting research findings!
2 to present the writer’s own research findings
These are clearly included and they are most of the second part, but this
is the main purpose is not
to present them – they illustrate how gossip works.
3 to dispel a myth about males and gossip
The first part of the text does this, but the second part reports research only about women’s gossip,
so No 1 is a better answer.
4 to show that women are superior to men
No, the writer does not intend to show this and doesn’t do so. 5 to encourage people to learn to gossip properly
No, the passage is about rules, but these are not the kind that people are supposed to learn but the
descriptive rules that describe common behaviour. There is nothing about encouraging people to behave like this.
6 to draw attention to the different ways in which men and women gossip This is a reasonable answer but the passage is really reporting research (see No 1)
7 to analyze the way in which women gossip
This is the point of the second part, but not the main idea of the whole passage.
Active reading (2)
Marked: women in the workplace Reading and understanding
3 Choose the best summary of the passage.
1 The English language reflects and reinforces the sexist attitudes of society, whether we consider words
such as actress, which is a less serious equivalent of the word actor, or titles we give women, such as Mrs, Miss and Ms.
This only summarizes the first section, but the title should indicate that a summary would say more than
this, including the points about hairstyle or clothes.
2 Women find it much harder to get on in the workplace because they have
to spend too much time
thinking about what clothes to wear, or what hairstyle they should have. This is only one point. It doesn’t summaraize the main idea and examples of language use.
3 Women constantly have to make choices about dress and appearance, and even the way they sign their
names, which lead people to make judgments about them; men do not have to make the same choices.
Although this doesn’t emphasize language, it summarizes the main idea of choice (marked / unmarked).
4 Choose the best answer to the questions.
1 Which of the following words is marked? (a) Doctor. (b) Actor. (c) Actress. (d) Poet.
2 What does a marked female ending to a word usually convey? (a) Physical attractiveness. (b) A lack of authority. (c) A lack of seriousness.
(d) Greater professional competence.
3 What did the writer notice at a conference? (a) All the women were dressed in the same way. (b) All the men were dressed in the same way. (c) One of the men wore a cowboy shirt and jeans. (d) None of the women wore sensible shoes.
4 What did a woman with high heels do at the conference? (a) She was isolated by her female colleagues. (b) She was the first to complete a group task.
(c) She broke one of the heels when she had to make a trek. (d) She took off her shoes and attracted a group of men.
5 What did a male colleague tell a female lawyer to do before she went to court?
(a) To put on a jacket over her blouse. (b) To do up a button on her blouse. (c) To undo a button on her blouse.
(d) To wear something with darker colours.
6 What is a woman often asked to do when filling in a form? (a) Choose from four titles.
(b) Give both her married and unmarried name. (c) Give information about her married status. (d) Avoid using the title “Dr”. Dealing with unfamiliar words
5 Match the words in the box with their definitions.
1 the place where you work (workplace) 2 to mean something (denote) 3 to make something or someone become gradually less effective, confident, or successful (undermine) 4 to think that something is true because it is likely, although you cannot be certain (presume)
5 a regular and important part or feature of something (staple)
6 involving or consisting of many people, things, or parts (multiple) 7 expressing what you mean using clear and effective language (eloquent) 8 used to describe a word that refers to one person or thing (singular) 9 behaving in a very unfriendly or threatening way towards someone (hostile)
10 to say or write words that someone else has said or written (quote) 11 to give someone responsibility for an important job or activity (entrust)
6 Complete the sentences with the correct form of the words in Activity 5.
1 Melanie got to her feet and made a eloquent defence of the rights of women in the workplace.
2 There are a number of words in English, such as people, which although technically in the singular
form, in actual fact denote a plural meaning.
3 The dark suit is a staple of the businessman’s wardrobe, and I presume it will remain so for a long time.
4 The hostile reception he got at the meeting is likely to undermine all the work that has been done
recently to improve relations between staff and management.
5 Jason suffered multiple injuries in the accident, and we didn’t want to entrust an inexperienced surgeon with the operation.
6 I think that most world leaders in the next century will be women, but don’t quote me on that.
7 Replace the underlined words with the correct form of the following words. You may need to make other changes.
1 Don’t forget to put on a bit of lipstick and mascara before you go out. (make-up)
2 The candidate displayed a lack of seriousness which we felt was not appropriate to the position he was applying for. (frivolousness)
3 I need to check my free dates in March before I can confirm whether I shall be able to attend the conference. (availability)
4 He has an attractive smile which people find hard to resist. (alluring) 5 This list of participants needs to be put into alphabetical order. (alphabetized)
6 The first person officially suggested as general secretary had to withdraw due to ill health. (nominee)
7 After the first remarks offering congratulations the atmosphere at the prize-giving ceremony turned sour. (congratulatory)
8 The speaker made a comment which I found unfriendly and which meant the opposite of what he really meant. (sarcastic)
8 Answer the questions about the words and expressions.
1 Is a linguistic problem concerned with (a) words, or (b) figures?
2 If you are disqualified from an event, do the organizers (a) allow you, or (b) refuse to allow you to take part?
3 Is rub likely to mean (a) a problem, or (b) a solution?
4 If you have got myriad job offers, are you likely to be (a) concerned, or (b) optimistic about your future?
5 If you let on about something to someone, do you (a) tell them about it, or (b) keep it a secret?
6 If you duck something which has been thrown at you, does it (a) hit, or (b) miss you?
7 If someone speaks to you in an uppity way, is their manner (a) superior, or (b) humble and polite? Reading and interpreting 9 Answer the questions.
1 From which field has the writer borrowed the term marked? The term marked is borrowed from linguistics. 2 What are the differences between a “marked” and an “unmarked” word? An “unmarked” word is normal, common or neutral, while a “marked” one is noticeable or used in a
particular way or has a special meaning. Sometimes the unmarked one is positive and the unmarked on is negative. 3 What is the difference between a “marked” and an “unmarked” appearance in the workplace?
An “unmarked” appearance would be normal, neutral and common, so it is unlikely that anyone would
comment on it. A “marked” appearance would be different, particular and noticeable because it would
be a contrast to all those with an unmarked appearance – people would be likely to comment on the
person with the marked appearance.
4 Why is no make-up “marked” for women?
Because many or most women wear some make-up. A woman wearing no make-up in a context where it
is expected that make-up would be worn is noticeably different, so it is “marked”.
5 How often do men wear “marked” clothes in the workplace? Not often or rarely.
6 What is the connection between “marked” and “sexy”?
Assuming that most women wear attractive and smart clothes, say in the workplace, this would be
unmarked (among women), whereas if a woman wore sexy clothes (which for example were very
revealing), this would be noticeable and “marked” (and inappropriate). In another context, the opposite
might be the case, say at a party where most women were dressed in a sexy manner, someone dressed
smartly and conservatively but not in a sexy manner would be “marked”. 7 Why are women’s titles (Mrs, Miss and Ms) all marked? Because whichever choice a woman makes it tells people something more than their title: If they choose
Mrs, they are married but perhaps conservative or traditional; if they choose Miss they are unmarried
but perhaps also traditional; if they choose Ms, you don’t know whether they are married or not, but you
do know that they don’t want to give information about being married and that they are more modern,
liberated, rebellious or feminist. Men do not have to make any of these choices.
8 In what sense are women’s surnames marked?
In some English-speaking countries, say the US, married woman’s surname is marked because
traditionally they take their husband’s surname as their married surname. So if a woman uses this name,
it may signal that she is traditional or willing to adopt her husband’s identity. Some married women,
especially in professions, continue to use their original surname from their own family, and then this
is “marked” – it may be a signal that they are modern, liberated, or wish to keep their own identity. Of course, this is not a problem in Chinese and those other languages in which a married woman doesn’t take her husband’s name.
Language in use
say + something / nothing / a lot etc about
1 Rewrite the sentences using say + something / nothing / a lot etc about .
1 The boots she wears give a lot of information about her. The boots she wears say a lot about her.
2 The way he talks about other people gives an indication of his personality.
The way he talks about other people says something about his personality. 3 The way she behaves doesn’t give any indication of her previous career. The way she behaves says nothing about her previous career.
4 This statement is very revealing about the organization’s attitude to women.
This statement says a lot about the organization’s attitude to women. 5 This type of task gives some idea about the structure of the final examination.
This type of task says something about the structure of the final examination. on + gerund
2 Rewrite the sentences using on + gerund.
1 When they checked the figures again, they realized there had been a mistake.
On checking the figures again, they realized there had been a mistake. 2 When she was asked, she said she would like to be known by her first name.
On being asked, she said she would like to be known by her first name. 3 When we investigated more completely, we made an important discovery. On investigating more completely, we made an important discovery. 4 When they heard the news, most people reacted with offers to help. On hearing the news, most people reacted with offers to help.
5 When people are accused of a crime they haven’t committed, most of them don’t know how to react.
On being accused of a crime they haven’t committed, most people don’t know how to react. anything but
3 Rewrite the sentences using anything but .
1 The organizer of the conference was the opposite of helpful. The organizer of the conference was anything but helpful.
2 The instructions you left were certainly not easy to follow. The instructions you left were anything but easy to follow. 3 I felt extremely unsafe wearing those four-inch-high heels. I felt anything but safe wearing those four-inch-high heels.
4 The weather last week was quite the opposite of warm and sunny. The weather last week was anything but warm and sunny.
5 I think that attitudes towards women in the company where I work are a long way from being progressive.
I think that attitudes towards women in the company where I work are
anything but progressive. other than
4 Rewrite the sentences using other than .
1 The only thing we do when the three of us meet is gossip. When the three of us meet we do nothing other than gossip. 2 Men have no real alternative unless it is to wear a suit. Men have no real alternative other than to wear a suit.
3 The only thing I wish to add is to say how much I have enjoyed the whole day.
I have nothing to add other than to say how much I have enjoyed the whole day.
4 They told her she didn’t have to do anything except sit quietly and look pretty.
They told her she had nothing to do other than to sit quietly and look pretty.
5 The only reason I have for being here is the free lunch. I have no reason to be here other than the free lunch. Collocations
5 Match the adjectives in Column A with the nouns in Column B. A B
bright colours
conservative tastes correct tone popular belief
heavy make-up highbrow subject face value
6 Complete the sentences with the collocations in Activity 5.
1 Both of us have rather conservative tastes, so we’re unlikely to buy modern furniture.
2 I’m afraid these bonds are worth a lot less than their face value. 3 It’s not easy to find the correct tone in which to speak to new customers. 4 I like wearing bright colours; I think they reflect my outgoing personality.
5 Yesterday’s lecture was on such a highbrow subject that I couldn’t get interested.
6 Why do they put such heavy make-up on people in television studios? 7 The popular belief that men don’t cry is nonsense.
7 Translate the paragraphs into Chinese.
Women can’t even fill out a form without telling stories about themselves. Most application forms now give four choices for titles. Men have one to choose – “Mr.” – so their choice carries no meaning other
than to say they are male. But women must choose among three, each of them marked. A woman who checks the box for “Mrs.” or “Miss” communicates not only whether she has been married but also that
she has conservative tastes in forms of address, and probably other conservative values as well. Checking “Ms.” declines to let on about marriage (whereas “Mr.” declines nothing since nothing was asked), but
it also marks the woman who checks it on her form as either liberated or rebellious, depending on the
attitudes and assumptions of the one making the judgment.
I sometimes try to duck these variously marked choices by giving my title as “Dr.” – and thereby risk
marking myself as either uppity (hence sarcastic responses like “Excuse me!”) or an over-achiever (hence
reactions of congratulatory surprise, like “Good for you!”). （☞ 翻译时注意原文的语气，否则就可能不
准确。第二段是一个长句，翻译时应注意按中文习惯断句。）
女人一填表就会暴露自己的个人经历。现在大多数的申请表会给出四种称谓选择，男人只有一种选
择，即“先生”，他们的选择除了表明他们是男性之外没有其他含义。但女人要从三种称谓中选一
个，其中的任何一种都是带标记的。如果勾选“太太”（Mrs.）或者“小姐”（Miss）的方框，她不
仅暴露了自己的婚姻状况，而且表明她在称谓上很保守，而且在价值观方面可能也很保守。如果选
“女士”（Ms.），说明她拒绝透露自己的婚姻状况（而男人选“先生”时则没有拒绝透露任何事情，
因为他本来就没有被要求透露婚姻信息）。另外，在表格中勾选“女士”的人会被标记为“平权者”
或“叛逆者”，这就要看评判她的人持什么样的态度和看法了。
我有时填上“博士”头衔，以避开这几种带标记的称谓选项。这么做又会给自己带来风险，标明自己
要么骄傲自大（于是乎招来讥讽的反应，比如“拜托！”），要么是一个读书读过头的人（那么对方
的反应就是祝贺式的惊奇，比如“真行！”）。 8 Translate the paragraphs into English.
我们对理想丈夫或理想妻子的假设显示出我们的性别期待以及我们对性别期待的反应。如果大多数年
轻姑娘希望她们的未婚夫强悍、能干、可靠，那么小伙子们也就别无选择，只能把自己训练得强悍、 能干、可靠，这样才能赢得女孩子的芳心。如果他们的做法与性别期待背道而驰，那么他们很可能会
在悲叹自己的光棍生涯中度过下半辈子。根据同样的不成文法则，如果多数年轻男子希望他们的未婚
妻温柔体贴、耐心、忠贞，认为这些比什么都重要，那么姑娘即便不是这种人，也会假装自己将来会 成为贤妻良母。
深入研究一下这种性别期待，我们就会发现这是受生理和社会因素制约的。无疑，女性为孕育婴儿做
好了生理准备，而男人则完全不适合这项工作。男人只有努力挣钱养家，才能让一家人过上好日子。
(presumption; option; other than; bemoan; unwritten rule; to be prone to; let on; goes without saying)
Our presumptions about what ideal husbands or wives are like reveal a lot about our gender expectations
as well as our responses to them. If most girls want their fiancés to be tough, capable and reliable, there
is no more option left for young men other than to be trained as tough, capable and reliable if they want
to win girls’ heart. If they act to the contrary, they will most probably
bemoan their bachelor’s status for
the rest of their lives. Following the same unwritten rule, if most boys expect their fiancées to be caring,
patient and faithful more than anything else, girls are prone to let on that they will become faithful wives
and loving mothers even if they are not the type.
Looking into such gender expectations, we may find that they are based on both physiological and social factors. It goes without saying that women are physically prepared to bear children, whereas men are utterly unfit for the job. Therefore, a family is better-off when its male members devote their time to
providing food and other necessities for it.
Translation of the passages Active reading (1)
英国人说闲话规则的性别差异
与普遍的看法相反，研究人员发现：男人和女人一样爱说闲话。英国的一项研究发现：两个性
别的人对诸如人际关系这类的社会话题所花的时间一样多，大约是65%；另一项研究则表明：两性
差异很小，男人谈话时有55% 的时间在说闲话，女人说闲话的时间是67%。由于体育和休闲大约占
10% 的说话时间，所以很可能是谈论足球的时间导致了这种性别的差异。 男人谈论政治、职业、艺术及文化事务等“重要”或“高雅”话题的可能性并不比女人高，除非
女人在场（这就形成了强烈的对比）。女人不在场的时候，男人也说闲话，他们谈论职业和政治等社
会问题的时间不会超过5%。男女都在场时，为了引起女人的注意，男人谈论“高雅”话题的时间会
大大增加，达到15% 至20%。
事实上，最近的研究表明，男性和女性说闲话在内容上只存在一个重要的差别：男人会花更多的 时间谈论自己。在谈论社会关系的总时间中，男人用了三分之二的时间来谈论自己的关系，而女人谈
论自己的时间则只占三分之一。
即便如此，那个关于男人讨论“解决世界上问题”而女人只是躲在厨房里闲言碎语的神话仍然大
行其道，尤其是在男人堆里。在我所调查的人群及面谈中，大多数英国男性刚开
始时都声称他们不说
闲话，而大多数女性都坦承自己说闲话。在接下来的提问中，我发现两者的差别只在于语义层面而非
实践层面：女性通常称为“说闲话”的活动在男性那里被定义为“信息交流”。 显然，在英国男性眼里说闲话是一件可耻的事情，这条不成文的规则已经深入人心，因此就算一
个人真的在说闲话，他也会把它说成是另一回事。更重要的是，它必须听起来像是在说别的事。在研
究中我发现男女说闲话的主要区别在于女人说闲话听起来更像闲言碎语。这涉及到三个主要因素——
音调规则、细节规则和反馈规则。 语调规则
我面谈过的英国女人都认为只有某种特别的语调适合于说闲话。说闲话的语调有时很高、语速很
快，有时像在舞台上演戏一样轻轻说，但总是活灵活现的。一位妇女这样解释：“闲话总是以语速快、 调门高、口气激动的话语开始的：‘哎，你猜猜怎么着？你知道吗？’或者，‘嗨，听我说，听我说（语
速快、急切，像舞台上清晰的低语），你猜我听到了什么？’”另一位女士告诉我：“即使实际上并不 是那么回事儿，你必须让它听起来像令人吃惊的事或者像丑闻。虽然那根本算不上什么秘密，你可以
说：‘哎，你可别告诉别人，我听说……’”
这些妇女中有许多人抱怨男人在说闲话时没有使用正确的语调。像交流任何其他信息一样，他们
总是用平缓、冷静的语调说闲话。一位妇女对此嗤之以鼻：“你简直搞不清他们是不是在说闲话。”但 这正是男人要的效果。 细节规则
女人强调说闲话时细节的重要性，她们悲叹男人在这方面的缺陷，声称男人“从不了解细节。”__
一位被调查者告诉我：“男人从不引述别人的话。如果我们不能确切地知道别人说了什么，那有什么
意思呢？”另一位被调查者说：“女人比男人更倾向于推测……她们谈及某某为什么会做某事，并追
溯整个事情的历史。”对女人而言，详细推测动机和原因与详细推测可能的后果一样是闲话的关键因素，
它要求对“过去的历史”进行详尽的梳理。英国男人认为：所有这些细节都很乏味、无关紧要，当然， 讲出来也就有伤男子气概。 反馈规则
在英国妇女中存在一种共识：好的“闲话”除了语调生动、关注细节之外，还要有好的听众。所
谓好的听众是指欣赏闲话并给予大量恰当的反馈的听众。女性的闲话反馈规则要求听众至少应该和说
话者一样生动活泼、充满热情。她们的道理好像是：这样才足够礼貌，因为说话人要把事情讲得出人
意外，讲得像丑闻，还是颇费心力的。因此听众至少要表现出适度的吃惊才能回报说话人的努力。据
我的女性被调查者说，英国男人好像完全没有掌握这条规则。他们不知道“你应该说‘不会吧！真的
吗？’及‘噢，我的上帝！’” 不过，我的女性被调查者也同意，那些以女性方式做出反应的男人听起来像小女孩，或者被认为 女里女气，让人感觉不舒服。我面谈过的一位男同性恋也觉得“不会吧！真的吗？”这类反应会被认
为是十足的“娘娘腔”。英国闲话礼仪的不成文规则的确允许男人在听到特别有趣的闲话时感到震惊
或吃惊，但大家都明白：一句恰到好处的脏话也能表达同样的诧异，这种方式更能被男人接受。 Active reading (2)
带标记的职业女性 “带标记的”这个术语是语言学理论的一个主要概念，它是指文字通过添加一个成分来强调词的
基本含义的一种方式，这种语言学上小小的添加成分并没有独立的语义。以“不带标记”形式出现的
词，它的语义是不言自明的，就是在你没有想到任何特殊事情时所想到的语义。 英语“不带标记”的动词时态是现在时，如visit。要表达过去的动作和行为，你必须在动词后面 加上ed，这样就可以生成visit 这个词的过去式visited；要表达将来的动作和行为，你要加一个词：
will visit。 名词的原形是单数的，带上标记则变成复数名词。为了表达“多于一个”的概念，我们必
定要加点什么，通常是s 或es，visit（一次访问）的复数形式变成了visits（多次访问），一道菜(dish)
加上复数标记就变成了dishes。
大多数英语词的“不带标记”形式所表达的是“男性”的意思，男性代表不带标记的情形。英语
有些后缀，如ess 和ette，是用来标示女性的。令人遗憾的是，被标示成女性的词往往会让人联想到“无
足轻重”。你如果把自己的生命交到一位doctorette（女见习医生）的手上会有安全感吗？这就是为什
么许多碰巧是女性的诗人和演员反对被称为poetess（女诗人） 和 actress（女演员）。一位被提名奥斯
卡最佳女配角奖的演员阿尔弗雷· 沃达德认为自己是一位actor( 演员)，因为actress（女演员）太关
注自己的眼睫毛和身上的赘肉了，而作为actors 的女人则只关注自己所扮演的角色。任何带标记的形
式都很容易产生超出该标记含义的额外含义。性别标记所表达的额外含义反映了对女性的传统联想：
即不太严肃，而且通常与性有关。
我能够分辨出参加会议的妇女的着装风格和类型，因为我们中的每个人都要选择发型、衣服、化 妆品和饰品，而每一个选择都有含义，每一种可供我们选择的着装风格都是带标记的。当然，参加会 议的男人也要选择，但他们的选择所带的含义要少得多。男人有可能会选择带标记的着装，但是他们
还有别的选择，事实上，我们这群人中没有一个人选择了带标记的着装。和女人不同，他们有选择不__ 带标记的自由。
我注意到男人的着装。他们本可以穿带碟形领结的牛仔衬衫、三件套的西服或带项链穿牛仔裤的 嬉皮士装，但这些都没有出现。在座的8 位男士都穿棕色或蓝色的休闲裤及标准的浅色衬衫。
没有一个男人穿拖鞋或皮靴，他们的皮鞋都是黑色、满帮、舒适、平跟的。总之，都是不带标记的。 虽然男人不化妆，但男人不化妆的含义和女人不化妆的含义却大不相同。对男人而言，不化妆是 不带标记的。 我曾经问过自己，我们女人是否能像男人那样选择不带标记的着装风格呢？回答是：不可能。不
存在不带标记的女人。
女人的发型没有一种能被称为是“标准”的，没有哪一种发型不透露一个女人的心思。女人发型 的数量多得惊人，但是如果一个女人的头发没什么特别的式样，这本身就说明她不在乎自己的形象——
这个信息就足以使她失去担任许多职务的资格。
女人选择鞋子时必须在舒适和吸引人这两种类型中做抉择。有一次，我们这群人出乎意料地走了 一段长路，穿平跟系带鞋的女人最先到达了目的地，最后到的是一位穿细高跟鞋的女人，她手里提着
鞋，傍边有好几个男人扶着她。
如果一个女人穿紧身衣服或者坦胸露背（也就是说很“性感”），她所传达的信息是: 她有意增加
自己的吸引力，她也可能在无意间表露了自己是单身、想找男人的意思。如果她穿的衣服不性感，那 也传达了另一种信息：即让人知道她本来可以穿得更性感的。莫娜· 哈林顿在《女律师》一书中提到
过一位在律师事务所工作的女士。有一次，她突然接到电话，要求她马上出庭。虽然她是该事务所的
合伙人，但她发现自己无意间犯了一个错误。她正准备出门时，一位年轻的( 男) 同事对她说：“你
是不是该扣上衬衣的纽扣啊？”这个问题让她感到惊讶。她告诉哈林顿，“我平时衬衣的胸口开得并
不低啊，而且他还不是一个特别守旧的人，但他觉得上法庭必须再扣上一个纽扣。”这就难办了：“我
开始琢磨是不是少扣一个纽扣就会让我失去权威。”
穿着鲜艳的女人引人瞩目，但如果她避免穿鲜艳的衣服，她也就（像我在这个句子中选用的动词
所暗示的那样）避开了某些事情。如果有人想让自己更有魅力，她就化浓妆吸引别人的眼球。淡妆使
人既俏丽又不妖媚。化妆产品成千上万，必须选择使用，而涂脂抹粉的方法也不尽其数。但不施粉黛
绝非不带标记，甚至有些男人会把这当成敌意，即不肯取悦他们。平时不施粉黛的女士会对自己化妆
后容貌的改变感到吃惊。在《面貌价值》一书中，我的同事罗宾· 洛克夫说，当她没卸妆从电视台出来时， 她吸引了更多男人的注意。
女人一填表就会暴露自己的个人经历。现在大多数的申请表会给出4 种称谓选择，男人只有一种
选择，即“先生”，他们的选择除了表明他们是男性之外没有其他的含义。但女人要从3 种称谓中选一个，
其中的任何一种都是带标记的。如果勾选 “太太”（Mrs.）或者“小姐”（Miss）的方框，她不仅暴 露了自己的婚姻状况，而且表明她在称谓上很保守，而且在价值观方面可能也很保守。如果选“女士”
（Ms.），说明她拒绝透露自己的婚姻状况（而男人选“先生”时则没有拒绝透露任何事情，因为他本
来就没有被要求透露婚姻信息）。另外，在表格中勾选“女士”的人会被标记为“解放者”或“叛逆者”，
这就要看评判她的人持什么样的态度和看法了。
我有时填上“博士”头衔，以避开这几种带标记的称谓选项。这么做又会给自己带来风险，标明
自己要么骄傲自大（于是乎招来讥讽的反应，比如“拜托！”），要么是一个读书读过头的人（那么对
方的反应就是祝贺式的惊奇，比如“真行！”）。
所有已婚妇女的姓都是带标记的。如果一个女人用了丈夫的姓，她向全世界宣布她已经结婚了，
而且，对某些旁观者来说她的价值观很传统。对另一些人来说，这表明她自我意识较弱，更愿意以丈
夫的身份来确定自己的身份。如果她不用丈夫的姓，这也带标记，会被认为是一件值得议论的事情：
她一定是“做”了什么；她“保留了自己的姓”。虽然男人可以做完全相同的事
——他们总是这样做——
但他永远都不会被认为“保留了自己的姓”，因为一开始就没有人觉得他会放弃自己的姓。对他——
而不是她——而言，使用自己的姓是不带标记的。
一个希望两全其美的已婚妇女可以用自己的姓加上丈夫的姓，但这样也同样是宣布她已经结婚，
还常常会带来一串长得叫人说不清的名字，让那些必须叫她名字的人倍感煎熬。在一串名字中（如
Harvey O’onovan, Jonathon Feldman, Stephanie Woodbury McGillicutty），女性的复合姓会很突出，它也 是带标记的。
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